Proper care, use, and humane treatment of animals used in research, testing, and education (referred to in this Guide as animal care and use) require scientific and professional judgment based on knowledge of the needs of the animals and the special requirements of the research, testing, and educational programs. The guidelines in this section are intended to aid in developing institutional policies governing the care and use of animals.
Each institution should establish and provide resources for an animal care and use program that is managed in accord with this Guide and in compliance with applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations, such as the federal Animal Welfare Regulations, or AWRs (CFR 1985), and Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, or PHS Policy (PHS 1996). To implement the recommendations in this Guide effectively, an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) must be established to oversee and evaluate the program.
Responsibility for directing the program is
generally given either to a veterinarian with training or experience
in laboratory animal science and medicine or to another qualified
professional. At least one veterinarian qualified through experience
or training in laboratory animal science and medicine or in the
species being used must be associated with the program. The institution
is responsible for maintaining records of the activities of the
IACUC and for conducting an occupational health and safety program.
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
9
The responsible administrative official at each institution must appoint an IACUC, also referred to as "the committee," to oversee and evaluate the institution's animal program, procedures, and facilities to ensure that they are consistent with the recommendations in this Guide, the AWRs, and the PHS Policy. It is the institution's responsibility to provide suitable orientation, background materials, access to appropriate resources, and, if necessary, specific training to assist IACUC members in understanding and evaluating issues brought before the committee.
Committee membership should include the following:
The size of the institution and the nature and extent of the research, testing, and educational programs will determine the number of members of the committee and their terms of appointment. Additional information about committee composition can be found in the PHS Policy and the AWRs.
The committee is responsible for oversight and evaluation of the animal care and use program and its components described in this Guide. Its functions include inspection of facilities; evaluation of programs and animal-activity areas; submission of reports to responsible institutional officials; review of proposed uses of animals in research, testing, or education (i.e., protocols); and establishment of a mechanism for receipt and review of concerns involving the care and use of animals at the institution.
The IACUC must meet as often as necessary
to fulfill its responsibilities, but it should meet at least once
every 6 months. Records of committee meetings and of results of
deliberations should be maintained. The committee should review
the animal-care program and inspect the animal facilities and
activity areas at least once every 6 months. After review and
inspection, a written report, signed by a majority of the IACUC,
should be made to the responsible administrative officials of
the institution on the status of the animal care and use program
and
10 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
other activities as stated herein and as required
by federal, state, or local regulations and policies. Protocols
should be reviewed in accord with the AWRs, the PHS Policy, U.S.
Government Principles for Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals
Used in Testing, Research, and Training (IRAC 1985; see Appendix
D), and this Guide (see footnote, p.2).
The following topics should be considered
in the preparation and review of animal care and use protocols:
Occasionally, protocols include procedures
that have not been previously encountered or that have the potential
to cause pain or distress that cannot be reliably controlled.
Such procedures might include physical restraint, multiple major
survival surgery, food or fluid restriction, use of adjuvants,
use of death as an end point, use of noxious stimuli, skin or
corneal irritancy testing, allowance of excessive tumor burden,
intracardiac or orbital-sinus blood sampling, or the use of abnormal
environmental conditions. Relevant objective information regarding
the procedures and the purpose of the study should be sought from
the literature, veterinarians, investigators, and others knowledgeable
about the effects on animals. If little is known regarding a specific
procedure, limited pilot studies designed to assess the effects
of the procedure on the animals, conducted under IACUC oversight,
might be appropriate. General guidelines for evaluation
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 11
of some of those methods are provided in this
section, but they might not apply in all instances.
Physical restraint is the use of manual or mechanical means to limit some or all of an animal' 5 normal movement for the purpose of examination, collection of samples, drug administration, therapy, or experimental manipulation. Animals are restrained for brief periods, usually minutes, in most research applications.
Animals can be physically restrained briefly either manually or with restraint devices. Restraint devices should be suitable in size, design, and operation to minimize discomfort or injury to the animal. Many dogs, nonhuman primates (e.g., Reinhardt 1991, 1995), and other animals can be trained, through use of positive reinforcement, to present limbs or remain immobile for brief procedures.
Prolonged restraint, including chairing of nonhuman primates, should be avoided unless it is essential for achieving research objectives and is approved by the IACUC. Less-restrictive systems that do not limit an animal's ability to make normal postural adjustments, such as the tether system for nonhuman primates and stanchions for farm animals, should be used when compatible with protocol objectives (Bryant 1980; Byrd 1979; Grandin 1991; McNamee and others 1984; Morton and others 1987; Wakeley and others 1974). When restraint devices are used, they should be specifically designed to accomplish research goals that are impossible or impractical to accomplish by other means or to prevent injury to animals or personnel.
The following are important guidelines for
restraint:
Major surgery penetrates and exposes a body
cavity or produces substantial
12 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
impairment of physical or physiologic function.
Multiple major survival surgical procedures on a single animal
are discouraged but may be permitted if scientifically justified
by the user and approved by the IACUC. For example, multiple major
survival surgical procedures can be justified if they are related
components of a research project, if they will conserve scarce
animal resources (NRC 1990; see also footnote, p.2), or if they
are needed for clinical reasons. If multiple major survival surgery
is approved, the IACUC should pay particular attention to animal
well-being through continuing evaluation of outcomes. Cost savings
alone is not an adequate reason for performing multiple major
survival surgical procedures (AWRs).
When experimental situations require food or fluid restriction, at least minimal quantities of food and fluid should be available to provide for development of young animals and to maintain long-term well-being of all animals. Restriction for research purposes should be scientifically justified, and a program should be established to monitor physiologic or behavioral indexes, including criteria (such as weight loss or state of hydration) for temporary or permanent removal of an animal from the experimental protocol (Van Sluyters and Oberdorfer 1991). Restriction is typically measured as a percentage of the ad libitum or normal daily intake or as percentage change in an animal's body weight.
Precautions that should be used in cases of
fluid restriction to avoid acute or chronic dehydration include
daily recording of fluid intake and recording of body weight at
least once a week (NIH 1990)-or more often, as might be needed
for small animals, such as rodents. Special attention should be
given to ensuring that animals consume a suitably balanced diet
(NYAS 1988) because food consumption might decrease with fluid
restriction. The least restriction that will achieve the scientific
objective should be used. In the case of conditioned-response
research protocols, use of a highly preferred food or fluid as
positive reinforcement, instead of restriction, is recommended.
Dietary control for husbandry or clinical purposes is addressed
in Chapter 2.
Adequate veterinary care must be provided, including access to all animals for evaluation of their health and well-being. Institutional mission, programmatic goals, and size of the animal program will determine the need for full-time, part-time, or consultative veterinary services. Visits by a consulting or part-time veterinarian should be at intervals appropriate to programmatic needs. For specific responsibilities of the veterinarian, see Chapter 3.
Ethical, humane, and scientific considerations
sometimes require the use of sedatives, analgesics, or anesthetics
in animals (see Appendix A). An attending
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 13
veterinarian (i.e., a veterinarian who has
direct or delegated authority) should give research personnel
advice that ensures that humane needs are met and are compatible
with scientific requirements. The AWRs and PHS Policy require
that the attending veterinarian have the authority to. oversee
the adequacy of other aspects of animal care and use. These can
include animal husbandry and nutrition, sanitation practices,
zoonosis control, and hazard containment.
AWRs and PHS Policy require institutions to ensure that people caring for or using animals are qualified to do so. The number and qualifications of personnel required to conduct and support an animal care and use program depend on several factors, including the type and size of institution, the administrative structure for providing adequate animal care, the characteristics of the physical plant, the number and species of animals maintained, and the nature of the research, testing, and educational activities.
Personnel caring for animals should be appropriately trained (see Appendix A, "Technical and Professional Education"), and the institution should provide for formal or on-the-job training to facilitate effective implementation of the program and humane care and use of animals. According to the programmatic scope, personnel will be required with expertise in other disciplines, such as animal husbandry, administration, laboratory animal medicine and pathology, occupational health and safety, behavioral management, genetic management, and various other aspects of research support.
There are a number of options for the training
of technicians. Many states have colleges with accredited programs
in veterinary technology (AVMA 1995); most are 2-year programs
that result in associate of science degrees, and some are 4-year
programs that result in bachelor of science degrees. Nondegree
training, with certification programs for laboratory animal technicians
and technologists, can be obtained from the American Association
for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS). There are commercially
available training materials that are appropriate for self-study
(Appendix B). Personnel using or caring for animals should also
participate regularly in continuing-education activities relevant
to their responsibilities. They are encouraged to be involved
in local and national meetings of AALAS and other relevant professional
organizations. On-the-job training should be part of every technician's
job and should be supplemented with institution-sponsored discussion
and training programs and with reference materials applicable
to their jobs and the species with which they work (Kreger 1995).
Coordinators of institutional training programs can seek assistance
from the Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC) and ILAR (NRC
1991). The Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals by
the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC 1993) and guidelines
of some other countries are valuable additions to the libraries
of laboratory animal scientists (Appendix B).
14 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
Investigators, technical personnel, trainees,
and visiting investigators who perform animal anesthesia, surgery,
or other experimental manipulations must be qualified through
training or experience to accomplish these tasks in a humane and
scientifically acceptable manner.
An occupational health and safety program
must be part of the overall animal care and use program (CDC and
NIH 1993; CFR 1984a,b,c; PHS Policy). The program must be consistent
with federal, state, and local regulations and should focus on
maintaining a safe and healthy workplace. The program will depend
on the facility, research activities, hazards, and animal species
involved. The National Research Council publication Occupational
Health and Safety in the Care and Use of Research Animals
(NRC In press) contains guidelines and references for establishing
and maintaining an effective, comprehensive program (also see
Appendix A). An effective program relies on strong administrative
support and interactions among several institutional functions
or activities, including the research program (as represented
by the investigator), the animal care and use program (as represented
by the veterinarian and the IACUC), the environmental health and
safety program, occupational-health services, and administration
(e.g., human resources, finance, and facility-maintenance personnel).
Operational and day-to-day responsibility for safety in the workplace,
however, resides with the laboratory or facility supervisor (e.g.,
principal investigator, facility director, or veterinarian) and
depends on performance of safe work practices by all employees.
Professional staff who conduct and support
research programs that involve hazardous biologic, chemical, or
physical agents (including ionizing and nonionizing radiation)
should be qualified to assess dangers associated with the programs
and to select safeguards appropriate to the risks. An effective
occupational health and safety program ensures that the risks
associated with the experimental use of animals are reduced to
acceptable levels. Potential hazards-such as animal bites, chemical
cleaning agents, allergens, and zoonoses-that are inherent in
or intrinsic to animal use should also be identified and evaluated.
Health and safety specialists with knowledge in appropriate disciplines
should be involved in the assessment of risks associated with
hazardous activities and in the development of procedures to manage
such risks. The extent and level of participation of personnel
in the occupational health and safety program should be based
on the hazards posed by the animals and materials used; on the
exposure intensity, duration, and frequency; on the susceptibility
of the personnel; and on the history of occupational illness and
injury in the particular workplace (Clark 1993).
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
15
Personnel at risk should be provided with dearly defined procedures for conducting their duties, should understand the hazards involved, and should be proficient in implementing the required safeguards.
Personnel should be trained regarding zoonoses,
chemical safety, microbiologic and physical hazards (including
those related to radiation and allergies), unusual conditions
or agents that might be part of experimental procedures (including
the use of genetically engineered animals and the use of human
tissue in immunocompromised animals), handling of waste materials,
personal hygiene, and other considerations (e.g., precautions
to be taken during personnel pregnancy, illness, or decreased
immunocompetence) as appropriate to the risk imposed by their
workplace.
It is essential that all personnel maintain
a high standard of personal cleanliness. Clothing suitable for
use in the animal facility and laboratories in which animals are
used should be supplied and laundered by the institution. A commercial
laundering service is acceptable in many situations; however,
appropriate arrangements should be made to decontaminate clothing
exposed to potential hazards. Disposable gloves, masks, head covers,
coats, coveralls, and shoe covers might be desirable in some circumstances.
Personnel should wash their hands and change clothing as often
as necessary to maintain personal hygiene. Outer garments worn
in the animal rooms should not be worn outside the animal facility.
Personnel should not be permitted to eat, drink, use tobacco products,
or apply cosmetics in animal rooms.
Facilities required to support occupational health and safety concerns associated with animal care and use programs will vary. Because a high standard of personal cleanliness is essential, facilities and supplies for meeting this obligation should be provided. Washing and showering facilities appropriate to the program should be available. Facilities, equipment, and procedures should also be designed, selected, and developed to provide for ergonomically sound operations that reduce the potential of physical injury to personnel (such as might be caused by the lifting of heavy equipment or animals and the use of repetitive movements). Safety equipment should be properly maintained and routinely calibrated.
The selection of appropriate animal-housing
systems requires professional knowledge and judgment and depends
on the nature of the hazards in question, the types of animals
used, and the design of the experiments. Experimental animals
should be housed so that potentially contaminated food and bedding,
feces,
16 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
and urine can be handled in a controlled manner. Facilities, equipment, and procedures should be provided for appropriate bedding disposal.
Appropriate methods should be used for assessing
exposure to potentially hazardous biologic, chemical, and physical
agents where the possibility of exceeding permissible exposure
limits (PELs) exists (CFR 1984b).
In selecting specific safeguards for animal experimentation with hazardous agents, careful attention should be given to procedures for animal care and housing, storage and disbursement of the agents, dose preparation and administration, body-fluid and tissue handling, waste and carcass disposal, and personal protection. Special safety equipment should be used in combination with appropriate management and safe practices. As a general rule, safety depends on trained personnel who rigorously follow safe practices.
Institutions should have written policies governing experimentation with hazardous biologic, chemical, and physical agents. An oversight process (such as use of a safety committee) should be developed to involve persons who are knowledgeable in the evaluation of hazards and safety issues. Because the use of animals in such studies requires special considerations, the procedures and facilities to be used should undergo review for specific safety concerns. Formal safety programs should be established to assess the hazards, determine the safeguards needed for their control, ensure that the staff has the necessary training and skills, and ensure that the facilities are adequate for the safe conduct of the research. Technical support should be provided to monitor and ensure compliance with institutional safety policies.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and National Institutes of Health (NIH) publication Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (1993) and the National Research Council (In press) recommend practices and procedures, safety equipment, and facility requirements for working with hazardous biologic agents and materials. Facilities that handle agents of unknown risk should consult with appropriate CDC personnel about hazard control and medical surveillance.
Special facilities and safety equipment are
needed to protect the animal-care and investigative staff, other
occupants of the facility, the public, animals, and the environment
from exposure to hazardous biologic, chemical, and physical agents
used in animal experimentation. Facilities used for animal experimentation
with hazardous agents should be separated from other animal housing
and support areas, research and clinical laboratories, and patient-care
facilities and should be appropriately identified; and access
to them should be limited to authorized personnel. Such facilities
should be designed and constructed to facilitate cleaning and
maintenance of mechanical systems. A properly managed and used
double corridor facility or barrier entry system is an effective
means of reducing cross-
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 17
contamination. Floor drains should always contain liquid or be sealed effectively by other means. Automatic trap priming can be provided to ensure that traps remain filled.
Hazardous agents should be contained within the study environment. Control of airflow (such as through the use of biologic-safety cabinets) that minimizes the escape of contaminants is a primary barrier used in the handling and administration of hazardous agents and the performance of necropsies on contaminated animals (CDC 1995; Kruse and others 1991). Special features of the facility-such as airlocks, negative air pressure, air filters, and redundant mechanical equipment with automatic switching-are secondary barriers aimed at preventing accidental release of hazards outside the facility and work environment.
Exposure to anesthetic waste gases should
be limited. This is usually accomplished by using various scavenging
techniques. If ether is used, personnel safety should be ensured
by proper use of signs and by using equipment and practices to
minimize risks associated with its explosiveness.
Personal protective equipment should be provided,
and other safety measures should be adopted when needed. Animal-care
personnel should wear appropriate institution-issued protective
clothing, shoes or shoe covers, and gloves. Clean protective clothing
should be provided as often as necessary. If it is appropriate,
personnel should shower when they leave the animal-care, procedure,
or dose-preparation areas. Protective clothing and equipment should
not be worn beyond the boundary of the hazardous-agent work area
or the animal facility. Personnel with potential exposure to hazardous
agents should be provided with personal protective equipment appropriate
to the agents (CFR 1984c). For example, personnel exposed to nonhuman
primates should be provided with such protective items as gloves,
arm protectors, masks, and face shields. Hearing protection should
be provided in high-noise areas. Personnel working in areas where
they might be exposed to contaminated airborne particulate material
or vapors should be provided with suitable respiratory protection
(CFR 1984c).
Development and implementation of a program of medical evaluation and preventive medicine should involve input from trained health professionals, such as occupational-health physicians and nurses. Confidentiality and other medical and legal factors must be considered in the context of appropriate federal, state, and local regulations.
A health-history evaluation before work assignment
is advisable to assess potential risks for individual employees.
Periodic medical evaluations are advis-
18 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
able for people in some risk categories. An appropriate immunization schedule should be adopted. It is important to immunize animal-care personnel against tetanus. In addition, pre-exposure immunization should be offered to people at risk of infection or exposure to such agents as rabies or hepatitis B virus. Vaccination is recommended if research is to be conducted on infectious diseases for which effective vaccines are available. Specific recommendations can be found in the CDC and NIH publication Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (1993). Pre-employment or pre-exposure serum collection is advisable only in specific circumstances as determined by an occupational health and safety professional (NRC In press). In such cases, identification, traceability, retention, and storage conditions of samples should be considered and the purpose for which the serum samples will be used must be consistent with applicable state laws and consistent with the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects (Federal Register 56(117): 28002-28032, June 18, 1991).
Zoonosis surveillance should be a part of an occupational-health program (CDC and NIH 1993; Fox and others 1984; NRC In press). Personnel should be instructed to notify their supervisors of potential or known exposures and of suspected health hazards and illnesses. Clear procedures should be established for reporting all accidents, bites, scratches. and allergic reactions (NRC In press).
Nonhuman-primate diseases that are transmissible
to humans can be serious hazards. Animal technicians, clinicians,
investigators, predoctoral and postdoctoral trainees, research
technicians, consultants, maintenance workers, security personnel,
and others who have contact with nonhuman primates or have duties
in nonhuman-primate housing areas should be routinely screened
for tuberculosis. Because of the potential for Cercopithecine
herpesvirus 1 (formerly Herpesvirus simiae) exposure, personnel
who work with macaques should have access to and be instructed
in the use of bite and scratch emergency-care stations (Holmes
and others 1995). A procedure should be established for ensuring
medical care for bites and scratches.
AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association).
1995. Accredited programs in veterinary technology. Pp.236-240
in 1995 AVMA Membership Directory and Resource Manual. 44th ed.
Schaumburg. Ill.: AVMA.
Bryant. J. M. 1980. Vest and tethering system
to accommodate catheters and a temperature monitor for nonhuman
primates. Lab. Anim. Sci. 30(4. Part I):706-705.
Byrd. L. D. 1979. A tethering system for direct
measurement of cardiovascular function in the caged baboon. Am.
J. Physiol. 236:H775-H779.
CCAC (Canadian Council on Animal Care) 1993.
Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals. Vol. 1.2nd
ed. E. D. Olfert. B. M. Cross. and A. A. McWilliam. eds. Ontario.
Canada: Canadian Council on Animal Care. 211 pp.
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
and NIH (National Institutes of Health). 1993. Biosafety in Microbiological
and Biomedical Laboratories. 3rd ed. HHS Publication No. (CDC)
93-8395, Washington. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 19
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
and NIH (National Institutes of Health). 1995. Primary Containment
for Biohazards: Selection. Installation and Use of Biological
Safety Cabinets. Washington. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984a.
Title 10; Part 20, Standards for Protection Against Radiation.
Washington. D.C.: Office of the Federal Register.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984b.
Title 29; Part 1910, Occupational Safety and Health Standards;
Subpart G. Occupation Health and Environmental Control, and Subpart
Z. Toxic and Hazardous Substances. Washington. D.C.: Office of
the Federal Register.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984c.
Title 29: Part 1910. Occupational Safety and Health Standards;
Subpart I. Personal Protective Equipment. Washington, D.C.: Office
of the Federal Register.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1985. Title
9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare).
Washington. D.C.: Office of the Federal Register.
Clark, J. M. 1993. Planning for safety: biological
and chemical hazards. Lab Anim. 22:33-38.
Fox, J. G., C. E. Newcomer, and H. Rozmiarek.
1984. Selected zoonoses and other health hazards. Pp.614-648 in
Laboratory Animal Medicine. 3. G. Fox, B. 3. Cohen, and F.M. Loew.
eds. New York: Academic Press.
Grandin, T. 1991. Livestock behavior and the
design of livestock handling facilities. Pp.96-125 in Handbook
of Facilities Planning. Vol.2. Laboratory Animal Facilities. New
York: Van Nostrand. 422 pp.
Holmes, G. P., L. E. Chapman, J. A. Stewart,
S. E. Straus, 3. K. Hilliard, D. S. Davenport, and the B Virus
Working Group. 1995. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment
of B-virus infections in exposed persons. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20:421-439.
IRAC (Interagency Research Animal Committee).
1985. U.S. Government Principles for Utilization and Care of Vertebrate
Animals Used in Testing. Research, and Training. Federal Register,
May 20, 1985. Washington. D.C.: Office of Science and Technology
Policy.
Kreger. M. D., 1995. Training Materials for
Animal Facility Personnel: AWIC Quick Bibliography Series, 95-08.
Beltsville, Md.: National Agricultural Library.
Kruse, R. H., W. H. Puckett, and J. H. Richardson.
1991. Biological safety cabinetry. Clin. Micro. Reviews 4:207-241.
McNamee, G. A.. Jr., R. W. Wannemacher, Jr..
R. E. Dinterman. H. Rozmiarek, and R. D. Montrey. 1984. A surgical
procedure and tethering system for chronic blood sampling, infusion,
and temperature monitoring in caged nonhuman primates. Lab. Anim.
Sci. 34(3):303-307.
Morton, W. R., G. H. Knitter, P. M. Smith,
T. G. Susor. and K. Schmitt. 1987. Alternatives to chronic restraint
of nonhuman primates. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191(10):1282-1286.
NIH (National Institutes of Health). 1990.
Guidelines for Diet Control in Behavioral Study. Bethesda, Md.:
Animal Research Advisory Committee. NIH.
NRC (National Research Council). 1990. Important
laboratory animal resources: selection criteria and funding mechanisms
for their preservation. A report of the Institute of Laboratory
Animal Resources Committee on Preservation of Laboratory Animal
Resources. ILAR News 32(4):A1-A32.
NRC (National Research Council). 1991. Education
and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide
for Developing Institutional Programs. A report of the Institute
of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Educational Programs
in Laboratory Animal Science. Washington. D.C.: National Academy
Press. 152 pp.
NRC (National Research Council). In press.
Occupational Health and Safety in the Care and Use of Research
Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources
Committee on Occupational Safety and Health in Research Animal
Facilities. Washington. D.C.: National Academy Press.
20 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
NYAS (New York Academy of Sciences). 1988.
Interdisciplinary Principles and Guidelines for the Use of Animals
in Research, Testing and Education. New York: New York Academy
of Sciences.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1996. Public
Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
28 pp. [PL 99-158, Health Research Extension Act, 1985]
Reinhardt, V.1991. Training adult male rhesus
monkeys to actively cooperate during in-homecage venipuncture.
Anim. Technol. 42(l):1 1-17.
Reinhardt, V.1995. Restraint methods of laboratory
non-human primates: a critical review. Anim. Welf. 4:221-238.
Van Sluyters, R. C., and M. D. Oberdorfer,
eds. 1991. Preparation and Maintenance of Higher Mammals During
Neuroscience Experiments. Report of National Institute of Health
Workshop. NIH No.91-3207. Bethesda, Md.: National Institutes of
Health.
Wakeley, H., J. Dudek. and J. Kruckeberg.
1974. A method for preparing and maintaining rhesus monkeys with
chronic venous catheters. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. 6:329-331.
Proper housing and management of animal facilities are essential to animal well-being, to the quality of research data and teaching or testing programs in which animals are used, and to the health and safety of personnel. A good management program provides the environment, housing, and care that permit animals to grow, mature, reproduce, and maintain good health; provides for their well-being; and minimizes variations that can affect research results. Specific operating practices depend on many factors that are peculiar to individual institutions and situations. Well-trained and motivated personnel can often ensure high-quality animal care, even in institutions with less than optimal physical plants or equipment.
Many factors should be considered in planning
for adequate and appropriate physical and social environment,
housing, space, and management. These include
22 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
Animals should be housed with a goal of maximizing species-specific behaviors and minimizing stress-induced behaviors. For social species, this normally requires housing in compatible pairs or groups. A strategy for achieving desired housing should be developed by animal-care personnel with review and approval by the IACUC. Decisions by the IACUC in consultation with the investigator and veterinarian, should be aimed at achieving high standards for professional and husbandry practices considered appropriate for the health and well-being of the species and consistent with the research objectives. After the decision-making process, objective assessments should be made to substantiate the adequacy of animal environment, husbandry, and management.
The environment in which animals are maintained should be appropriate to the species, its life history, and its intended use. For some species, it might be appropriate to approximate the natural environment for breeding and maintenance. Expert advice might be sought for special requirements associated with the experiment or animal subject (for example, hazardous-agent use, behavioral studies, and immunocompromised animals, farm animals, and nontraditional laboratory species).
The following sections discuss some considerations
of the physical environment related to common research animals.
The microenvironment of an animal is the physical environment immediately surrounding it-the primary enclosure with its own temperature, humidity, and gaseous and particulate composition of the air. The physical environment of the secondary enclosure-such as a room, a barn, or an outdoor habitat-constitutes the macroenvironment. Although the microenvironment and the macro-environment are linked by ventilation between the primary and secondary enclosures, the environment in the primary enclosure can be quite different from the environment in the secondary enclosure and is affected by the design of both enclosures.
Measurement of the characteristics of the
microenvironment can be difficult in small primary enclosures.
Available data indicate that temperature, humidity, and concentrations
of gases and particulate matter are often higher in an animal's
microenvironment than in the macroenvironment (Besch 1980; Flynn
1959; Gamble and Clough 1976; Murakami 1971; Serrano 1971). Microenvironmental
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 23
conditions can induce changes in metabolic
and physiologic processes or alterations in disease susceptibility
(Broderson and others 1976; Schoeb and others 1982; Vesell and
others 1976).
Primary Enclosures
The primary enclosure (usually a cage, pen,
or stall) provides the limits of an animal's immediate environment.
Acceptable primary enclosures
Primary enclosures should be constructed with materials that balance the needs of the animal with the ability to provide for sanitation. They should have smooth, impervious surfaces with minimal ledges, angles, corners, and overlapping surfaces so that accumulation of dirt, debris, and moisture is reduced and satisfactory cleaning and disinfecting are possible. They should be constructed of durable materials that resist corrosion and withstand rough handling without chipping, cracking, or rusting. Less-durable materials, such as wood, can provide a more appropriate environment in some situations (such as runs, pens, and outdoor corrals) and can be used to construct perches, climbing structures, resting areas, and perimeter fences for primary enclosures. Wooden items might need to be replaced periodically because of damage or difficulties with sanitation.
All primary enclosures should be kept in good
repair to prevent escape of or injury to animals, promote physical
comfort, and facilitate sanitation and servicing. Rusting or oxidized
equipment that threatens the health or safety of the animals should
be repaired or replaced.
24 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
Some housing Systems have special caging and ventilation equipment, including filter-top cages, ventilated cages, isolators, and cubicles. Generally, the purpose of these systems is to minimize the spread of airborne disease agents between cages or groups of cages. They often require different husbandry practices, such as alterations in the frequency of bedding change, the use of aseptic handling techniques, and specialized cleaning, disinfecting, or sterilization regimens to prevent microbial transmission by other than the airborne route.
Rodents are often housed on wire flooring,
which enhances sanitation of the cage by enabling urine and feces
to pass through to a collection tray. However, some evidence suggests
that solid-bottom caging, with bedding, is preferred by rodents
(Fullerton and Gilliatt 1967; Grover-Johnson and Spencer 1981;
Ortman and others 1983). Solid-bottom caging, with bedding, is
therefore recommended for rodents. Vinyl-coated flooring is often
used for other species, such as dogs and nonhuman primates. IACUC
review of this aspect of the animal care program should ensure
that caging enhances animal well-being consistent with good sanitation
and the requirements of the research project.
Sheltered or Outdoor Housing
Sheltered or outdoor housing-such as barns, corrals, pastures, and islands-is a common primary housing method for some species and is acceptable for many situations. In most cases, outdoor housing entails maintaining animals in groups.
When animals are maintained in outdoor runs, pens, or other large enclosures, there must be protection from extremes in temperature or other harsh weather conditions and adequate protective and escape mechanisms for submissive animals. These goals can be achieved by such features as windbreaks, shelters, shaded areas, areas with forced ventilation, heat-radiating structures, or means of retreat to conditioned spaces, such as an indoor portion of a run. Shelters should be accessible to all animals, have sufficient ventilation, and be designed to prevent buildup of waste materials and excessive moisture. Houses, dens, boxes, shelves, perches, and other furnishings should be constructed in a manner and made of materials that allow cleaning or replacement in accord with generally accepted husbandry practices when the furnishings are excessively soiled or worn.
Floors or ground-level surfaces of outdoor housing facilities can be covered with dirt, absorbent bedding, sand, gravel, grass, or similar material that can be removed or replaced when that is needed to ensure appropriate sanitation. Excessive buildup of animal waste and stagnant water should be avoided by, for example, using contoured or drained surfaces. Other surfaces should be able to withstand the elements and be easily maintained.
Successful management of outdoor housing relies
on consideration of
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 25
Naturalistic Environments
Areas like pastures and islands afford opportunities
to provide a suitable environment for maintaining or producing
animals and for some types of research. Their use results in the
loss of some control over nutrition, health care and surveillance,
and pedigree management. These limitations should be balanced
against the benefits of having the animals live in more natural
conditions. Animals should be added to, removed from, and returned
to social groups in this setting with appropriate consideration
of the effects on the individual animals and on the group. Adequate
supplies of food, fresh water, and natural or constructed shelter
should be ensured.
An animal's space needs are complex, and consideration of only the animal's body weight or surface area is insufficient. Therefore, the space recommendations presented here are based on professional judgment and experience and should be considered as recommendations of appropriate cage sizes for animals under conditions commonly found in laboratory animal housing facilities. Vertical height, structuring of the space, and enrichments can clearly affect animals' use of space. Some species benefit more from wall space (e.g., "thigmotactic" rodents), shelters (e.g., some New World primates), or cage complexities (e.g., cats and chimpanzees) than from simple increases in floor space (Anzaldo and others 1994; Stricklin 1995). Thus, basing cage-size recommendations on floor space alone is inadequate. In this regard, the Guide might differ from the AWRs (see footnote 1, p.2).
Space allocations should be reviewed and modified
as necessary to address individual housing situations and animal
needs (for example, for prenatal and postnatal care, obese animals,
and group or individual housing). Such animalperformance indexes
as health, reproduction, growth, behavior, activity, and use of
space can be used to assess the adequacy of housing. At a minimum,
an animal must have enough space to turn around and to express
normal postural adjustments, must have ready access to food and
water, and must have enough cleanbedded or unobstructed area to
move and rest in. For cats, a raised resting surface should be
included in the cage. Raised resting surfaces or perches are also
often
26 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
desirable for dogs and nonhuman primates. Low resting surfaces that do not allow the space under them to be comfortably occupied by the animal should be counted as part of the floor space. Floor space taken up by food bowls, water containers, litter boxes, or other devices not intended for movement or resting should not be considered part of the floor space.
The need for and type of adjustments in the amounts of primary enclosure space recommended in the tables that follow should be approved at the institutional level by the IACUC and should be based on the performance outcomes described in the preceding paragraph with due consideration of the AWRs and PHS Policy (see footnote 1, p.2). Professional judgment, surveys of the literature and current practices, and consideration of the animals' physical, behavioral, and social needs and of the nature of the protocol and its requirements might be necessary (see Crockett and others 1993, 1995). Assessment of animals' space needs should be a continuing process. With the passage of time or long-term protocols, adjustments in floor space and height should be considered and modified as necessary.
It is not within the scope or size constraints of the Guide to discuss the housing requirements of all species used in research. For species not mentioned, space and height allocations for an animal of equivalent size and with a similar activity profile and similar behavior can be used as a starting point from which adjustments that take species-specific and individual needs into account can be made.
Whenever it is appropriate, social animals should be housed in pairs or groups, rather than individually, provided that such housing is not contraindicated by the protocol in question and does not pose an undue risk to the animals (Brain and Bention 1979). Depending on a variety of biologic and behavioral factors, group-housed animals might need less or more total space per animal than individually housed animals. Recommendations provided below are based on the assumption that pair or group housing is generally preferable to single housing, even when members of the pair or group have slightly less space per animal than when singly caged. For example, each animal can share the space allotted to the animals with which it is housed. Furthermore, some rodents or swine housed in compatible groups seek each other out and share cage space by huddling together along walls, lying on each other during periods of rest, or gathering in areas of retreat (White 1990; White and others 1989). Cattle, sheep, and goats exhibit herding behavior and seek group associations and close physical contact. Conversely, some animals, such as various species of nonhuman primates, might need additional individual space when group-housed to reduce the level of aggression.
The height of enclosures can be important
in the normal behavior and postural adjustments of some species.
Cage heights should take into account typical postures of an animal
and provide adequate clearance for normal cage components, such
as feeders and water devices, including sipper tubes. Some species
of
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 27
nonhuman primates use the vertical dimensions of the cage to a greater extent than the floor. For them, the ability to perch and to have adequate vertical space to keep the whole body above the cage floor can improve their well-being.
Space allocations for animals should be based on the following tables, but might need to be increased, or decreased with approval of the IACUC, on the basis of criteria previously listed.
Table 2.1 lists recommended space allocations for commonly used laboratory rodents housed in groups. If they are housed individually or exceed the weights in the table, animals might require more space.
Table 2.2 lists recommended space allocations
for other common laboratory animals. These allocations are based,
in general, on the needs of individually housed animals. Space
allocations should be re-evaluated to provide for enrichment of
the primary enclosure or to accommodate animals that exceed the
weights in the table. For group housing. determination of the
total space needed is not necessarily based on the sum of the
amounts recommended for individually housed animals. Space for
group-housed animals should be based on individual species needs,
behavior, compatibility of the animals, numbers of animals, and
goals of the housing situation.
TABLE 2.1 Recommended Space for Commonly Used
Group-Housed Laboratory Rodents
| Animals | Weight, g | Floor Area/Animal, in2 a | Height.b inc |
| Mice | <10 | 6 | 5 |
| Up to 15 | 8 | 5 | |
| Up to 25 | 12 | 5 | |
| >25d | >15 | 5 | |
| Rats | <100 | 17 | 7 |
| Up to 200 | 23 | 7 | |
| Up to 300 | 29 | 7 | |
| Up to 400 | 40 | 7 | |
| Up to 500 | 60 | 7 | |
| >500d | >70 | 7 | |
| Hamsters | <60 | 10 | 6 |
| Up to 80 | 13 | 6 | |
| Up to 100 | 16 | 6 | |
| >100d | >19 | 6 | |
| Guinea pigs | <350 | 60 | 7 |
| >350d | >101 | 7 |
aTo convert square inches to square centimeters. multiply by 6.45.
bFrom cage floor to cage top.
cTO convert inches to centimeters. multiply by 2.54.
dLarger
animals might require more space to meet the performance standards
(see text).
28 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY
ANIMALS
TABLE 2.2 Recommended Space for Rabbits, Cats,
Dogs, Nonhuman Primates, and Birds
| Animals | Weight, kga | Floor Area/Animal, ft2 b | Height c ind |
| Rabbits | <2 | 1.5 | 14 |
| Up to 4 | 3.0 | 14 | |
| Up to 5.4 | 4.0 | 14 | |
| >5.4e | >5.0 | 14 | |
| Cats | <4 | 3.0 | 24 |
| >4e | >4.0 | 24 | |
| Dogsf | <15 | 8.0 | - |
| Up to 30 | 12.0 | - | |
| >30e | >24.0 | - | |
| Monkeysg, h | |||
| (including baboons) | |||
| Group 1 | Up to 1 | 1.6 | 20 |
| Group 2 | Up to 3 | 3.0 | 30 |
| Group 3 | Up to 10 | 4.3 | 30 |
| Group 4 | Up to 15 | 6.0 | 32 |
| Group 5 | Up to 25 | 8.0 | 36 |
| Group 6 | Up to 30 | 10.0 | 46 |
| Group 7 | >30e | 15.0 | 46 |
| Apes (pongidae)h | |||
| Group 1 | Up to 20 | 10.0 | 55 |
| Group 2 | Up to 35 | 15.0 | 60 |
| Group 3 | >35 | 25.0 | 84 |
| Pigeons/ | - | 0.8 | - |
| Quail/ | - | 0.25 | - |
| Chickens/ | <0.25 | 0.25 | - |
| Up to 0.5 | 0.50 | - | |
| Up to 1.5 | 1.00 | - | |
| Up to 3.0 | 2.00 | - | |
| >3.0e | >3.00 | - |
Table 2.3 lists recommended space allocations
for farm animals commonly used in a laboratory setting. When animals,
housed individually or in groups, exceed the weights in the table,
more space might be required. If they are grouphoused, adequate
access to water and feeder space should be provided (Larson and
Hegg 1976; Midwest Plan Service 1987).
Regulation of body temperature within normal
variation is necessary for the well-being of homeotherms. Generally,
exposure of unadapted animals to temperatures above 850F
(29.40C) or below 400F (4.40C),
without access to shelter or other protective mechanisms, might
produce clinical effects (Gordon 1990),
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT
29
TABLE 2.2 Continued
aTo convert kilograms to pounds, multiply by 2.2.
bTo convert square feet to square meters, multiply by 0.09.
cFrom cage floor to cage top.
dTo convert inches to centimeters. multiply by 2.54.
eLarger animals might require more space to meet performance standards (see text).
fThese recommendations might require modification according to body conformation of individual animals and breeds. Some dogs, especially those toward upper limit of each weight range, might require additional space to ensure compliance with the regulations of the Animal Welfare Act. These regulations (CFR 1985) mandate that the height of each cage be sufficient to allow occupant to stand in "comfortable position" and that the minimal square feet of floor space be equal to "mathematical square of the sum of the length of the dog in inches (measured from the tip of its nose to the base of its tail) plus 6 inches; then divide the product by 144."
gCallitrichidae, Cebidae. Cercopithecidae, and Papio. Baboons might require more height than other monkeys.
hFor some species (e.g., Brachyreles, Hylobares, Symphalangus, Pongo, and Pan), cage height should be such that an animal can, when fully extended, swing from the cage ceiling without having its feet touch the floor. Cage-ceiling design should enhance brachiating movement.
iApes weighing over 50 kg are more effectively housed in permanent housing of masonry, concrete, and wire-panel structure than in conventional caging.
jCage
height should be sufficient for the animals to stand erect with
their feet on the floor.
which could be life-threatening. Animals can adapt to extremes
by behavioral, physiologic, and morphologic mechanisms, but such
adaptation takes time and might alter protocol outcomes or otherwise
affect performance (Garrard and others 1974; Gordon 1993; Pennycuik
1967).
Environmental temperature and relative humidity can depend on husbandry and housing design and can differ considerably between primary and secondary enclosures. Factors that contribute to variation in temperature and humidity include housing material and construction, use of filter tops, number of animals per cage, forced ventilation of the enclosures, frequency of bedding changes, and bedding type.
Some conditions might require increased environmental temperatures, such as postoperative recovery, maintenance of chicks for the first few days after hatching, housing of some hairless rodents, and housing of neonates that have been separated from their mothers. The magnitude of the temperature increase depends on the circumstances of housing; sometimes, raising the temperature in the primary enclosure alone (rather than raising the temperature of the secondary enclosure) is sufficient.
In the absence of well-controlled studies,
professional judgment and experience have resulted in recommendations
for dry-bulb temperatures (Table 2.4) for several common species.
In the case of animals in confined spaces, the range of
30 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY
ANIMALS
TABLE 2.3 Recommended Space for Commonly Used
Farm Animals
| Animals/Enclosure | Weight. kga | Floor Area/Animal. ft2 b |
| Sheep and Goats | ||
| <25 | 10.0 | |
| Up to 50 | 15.0 | |
| >50c | 20.0 | |
| 2-5 | <25 | 8.5 |
| Up to 50 | 12.5 | |
| >50c | 17.0 | |
| >5 | <25 | 7.5 |
| Up to 50 | 11.3 | |
| >50c | 15.0 | |
| Swine | ||
| Up to 25 | 12.0 | |
| Up to 50 | 15.0 | |
| Up to 100 | 24.0 | |
| Up to 200 | 48.0 | |
| >200c | >60.0 | |
| 2-5 | <25 | 6.0 |
| Up to 50 | 10.0 | |
| Up to 100 | 20.0 | |
| Up to 200 | 40.0 | |
| >200c | >52.0 | |
| >5 | <25 | 6.0 |
| Up to 50 | 9.0 | |
| Up to 100 | 18.0 | |
| Up to 200 | 36.0 | |
| >200c | >48.0 |
daily temperature fluctuations should be kept
to a minimum to avoid repeated large demands on the animals' metabolic
and behavioral processes to compensate for changes in the thermal
environment. Relative humidity should also be controlled, but
not nearly as narrowly as temperature; the acceptable range of
relative humidity is 30 to 70%. The temperature ranges in Table
2.4 might not apply to captive wild animals, wild animals maintained
in their natural environment, or animals in outdoor enclosures
that are given the opportunity to adapt by being exposed to seasonal
changes in ambient conditions.
The purposes of ventilation are to supply
adequate oxygen; remove thermal loads caused by animal respiration,
lights, and equipment; dilute gaseous and particulate contaminants;
adjust the moisture content of room air; and, where
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT
31
TABLE 2.3 Continued
| Animals/Enclosure | Weight. kga | Floor Area/Animal, ft2 b |
| Cattle | ||
| 1 | <75 | 24.0 |
| Up to 200 | 48.0 | |
| Up to 350 | 72.0 | |
| Up to 500 | 96.0 | |
| Up to 650 | 124.0 | |
| >650c | >144.0 | |
| 2-5 | <75 | 20.0 |
| Up to 200 | 40.0 | |
| Up to 350 | 60.0 | |
| Up to 500 | 80.0 | |
| Up to 650 | 105.0 | |
| >650c | >120.0 | |
| >5 | <75 | 18.0 |
| Up to 200 | 36.0 | |
| Up to 350 | 54.0 | |
| Up to 500 | 72.0 | |
| Up to 650 | 93.0 | |
| >650c | >108.0 | |
| Horses | 144.0 | |
| Ponies | ||
| 1-4 | 72.0 | |
| >4/Pen | <200 | 60.0 |
| >200c | >72.0 |
aTo convert kilograms to pounds. multiply by 2.2.
bTo convert square feet to square meters. multiply by 0.09.
cLarger animals might require more space to
meet performance standards (see text).
appropriate, create static-pressure differentials between adjoining
spaces. Establishing a room ventilation rate, however, does not
ensure the adequacy of the ventilation of an animal's primary
enclosure and hence does not guarantee the quality of the microenvironment.
The degree to which air movement (drafts)
causes discomfort or biologic consequences has not been established
for most species. The volume and physical characteristics of the
air supplied to a room and its diffusion pattern influence the
ventilation of an animal's primary enclosure and so are important
determinants of its microenvironment. The relationship of the
type and location of supply-air diffusers and exhaust vents to
the number, arrangement, location, and type of primary enclosures
in a room or other secondary enclosure affects how well the primary
enclosures are ventilated and should therefore be considered.
The use of computer modeling for assessing those factors in relation
to heat loading and air diffusion patterns can be helpful in optimizing
ventilation of primary and
32 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY
ANIMALS
TABLE 2.4 Recommended Dry-Bulb Temperatures
for Common Laboratory Animals
| Dry-Bulb Temperature | ||
| Animal | 0C | 0F |
| Mouse. rat. hamster. gerbil. guinea pig | 18-26 | 64-79 |
| Rabbit | 16-22 | 61-72 |
| Cat. dog. nonhuman primate | 18-29 | 64-84 |
| Farm animals and poultry | 16-27 | 61-81 |
secondary enclosures (for example, Hughes and Reynolds 1995; Reynolds and Hughes 1994).
The guideline of 10-15 fresh-air changes per hour has been used for secondary enclosures for many years and is considered an acceptable general standard. Although it is effective in many animal-housing settings, the guideline does not take into account the range of possible heat loads; the species, size, and number of animals involved; the type of bedding or frequency of cage-changing; the room dimensions; or the efficiency of air distribution from the secondary to the primary enclosure. In some situations, the use of such a broad guideline might pose a problem by overventilating a secondary enclosure that contains few animals and thereby wasting energy or by underventilating a secondary enclosure that contains many animals and thereby allowing heat and odor accumulation.
To determine more accurately the ventilation required, the minimal ventilation rate (commonly in cubic feet per minute) required to accommodate heat loads generated by animals can be calculated with the assistance of mechanical engineers. The heat generated by animals can be calculated with the average-total-heat-gain formula as published by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE, 1993). The formula is species-independent, so it is applicable to any heat-generating animal. Minimal required ventilation is determined by calculating the amount of cooling required (total cooling load) to control the heat load expected to be generated by the largest number of animals to be housed in the enclosure in question plus any heat expected to be produced by nonanimal sources and heat transfer through room surfaces. The total-cooling-load calculation method can also be used for an animal space that has a fixed ventilation rate to determine the maximal number of animals (based on total animal mass) that can be housed in the space.
Even though that calculation can be used to
determine minimal ventilation needed to prevent heat buildup,
other factors-such as odor control, allergen control, particle
generation, and control of metabolically generated gases-might
necessitate ventilation beyond the calculated minimum. When the
calculated minimal required ventilation is substantially less
than 10 air changes per hour, lower ventilation rates might be
appropriate in the secondary enclosure, provided
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 33
that they do not result in harmful or unacceptable concentrations of toxic gases, odors, or particles in the primary enclosure. Similarly, when the calculated minimal required ventilation exceeds 15 air changes per hour, provisions should be made for additional ventilation required to address the other factors. In some cases, fixed ventilation in the secondary enclosure might necessitate adjustment of sanitation schedules or limitation of animal numbers to maintain appropriate environmental conditions.
Caging with forced ventilation that uses filtered room air and other types of special primary enclosures with independent air supplies (i.e., air not drawn from the room) can effectively address the ventilation requirements of animals without the need to ventilate secondary enclosures to the extent that would be needed if there were no independent primary-enclosure ventilation. Nevertheless, a secondary enclosure should be ventilated sufficiently to provide for the heat loads released from its primary enclosures. If the specialized enclosures contain adequate particulate and gaseous filtration to address contamination risks, recycled air may be used in the secondary enclosures.
Filtered isolation caging without forced ventilation, such as that used in some types of rodent housing, restricts ventilation. To compensate, it might be necessary to adjust husbandry practices-including sanitation, placement of cages in the secondary enclosure, and cage densities-to improve the microenvironment and heat dissipation.
The use of recycled air to ventilate animal rooms saves considerable amounts of energy but might entail some risk. Many animal pathogens can be airborne or travel on fomites, such as dust, so exhaust air to be recycled into heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems that serve multiple rooms presents a risk of cross contamination. The exhaust air to be recycled should be HEPA filtered (high-efficiency particulate air-filtered) to remove airborne particles before it is recycled; the extent and efficiency of filtration should be proportional to the estimated risk. HEPA filters are available in various efficiencies that can be used to match the magnitude of risk (ASHRAE 1992, 1993). Air that does not originate from animal-use areas but has been used to ventilate other spaces (e.g., some human-occupancy areas and food, bedding, and supply storage areas) may be recycled for animal-space ventilation and might require less-intensive filtration or conditioning than air recycled from animal-use space. The risks in some situations, however, might be too great to consider recycling (e.g., in the case of nonhuman-primate and biohazard areas).
Toxic or odor-causing gases, such as ammonia,
can be kept within acceptable limits if they are removed by the
ventilation system and replaced with air that contains either
a lower concentration or none of these gases. Treatment of recycled
air for these substances by chemical absorption or scrubbing might
be effective; however, the use of nonrecycled air is preferred
for ventilation of animal use and holding areas. The use of HEPA-filtered
recycled air without
34 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
gaseous filtration (such as with activated-charcoal
filters) can be used but only in limited applications, provided
that
Frequent bedding changes and cage-cleaning coupled with husbandry practices, such as low animal density within the room and lower environmental temperature and humidity, can also reduce the concentration of toxic or odor-causing gases in animal-room air. Treatment of recycled air for either particulate or gaseous contaminants is expensive and can be rendered ineffective by improper or insufficient maintenance of filtration systems. These systems should be properly maintained and monitored appropriately to maximize their effectiveness.
The successful operation of any HVAC system
requires regular maintenance and evaluation, including measurement
of its function at the level of the secondary enclosure. Such
measurements should include supply- and exhaust-air volumes, as
well as static-pressure differentials, where applicable.
Light can affect the physiology, morphology, and behavior of various animals (Brainard and others 1986; Erkert and Grober 1986; Newbold and others 1991; Tucker and others 1984). Potential photostressors include inappropriate photoperiod, photointensity, and spectral quality of the light (Stoskopf 1983). Numerous factors can affect animals' needs for light and should be considered when an appropriate illumination level is being established for an animal holding room. These include light intensity, duration of exposure, wavelength of light, light history of the animal, pigmentation of the animal, time of light exposure during the circadian cycle, body temperature, hormonal status, age, species, sex, and stock or strain of animal (Brainard 1989; Duncan and O'Steen 1985; O'Steen 1980; Saltarelli and Coppola 1979; Semple-Rowland and Dawson 1987; Wax 1977).
In general, lighting should be diffused throughout
an animal holding area and provide sufficient illumination for
the well-being of the animals and to allow good housekeeping practices,
adequate inspection of animals-including the bottom-most cages
in racks-and safe working conditions for personnel. Light in
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 35
animal holding rooms should provide for adequate vision and for neuroendocrine regulation of diurnal and circadian cycles (Brainard 1989).
Photoperiod is a critical regulator of reproductive behavior in many species of animals (Brainard and others 1986; Cherry 1987) and can also alter body-weight gain and feed intake (Tucker and others 1984). Inadvertent light exposure during the dark cycle should be minimized or avoided. Because some species will not eat in low light or darkness, such illumination schedules should be limited to a duration that will not compromise the well-being of the animals. A time-controlled lighting system should be used to ensure a regular diurnal cycle, and timer performance should be checked periodically to ensure proper cycling.
The most commonly used laboratory animals are nocturnal. Because the albino rat is more susceptible to phototoxic retinopathy than other species, it has been used as a basis for establishing room illumination levels (Lanum 1979). Data for room light intensities for other animals, based on scientific studies, are not available. Light levels of about 325 lux (30 ft-candles) about 1.0 m (3.3 ft) above the floor appear to be sufficient for animal care and do not cause clinical signs of phototoxic retinopathy in albino rats (Belihorn 1980), and levels up to 400 lux (37 ft-candles) as measured in an empty room 1 m from the floor have been found to be satisfactory for rodents if management practices are used to prevent retinal damage in albinos (Clough 1982). However, the light experience of an individual animal can affect its sensitivity to phototoxicity; light of 130-270 lux above the light intensity under which it was raised has been reported to be near the threshold of retinal damage in some individual albino rats according to histologic, morphometric, and electrophysiologic evidence (Semple-Rowland and Dawson 1987). Some guidelines recommend a light intensity as low as 40 lux at the position of the animal in midcage (NASA 1988). Young albino and pigmented mice prefer much-lower illumination than adults (Wax 1977), although potential retinal damage associated with housing these rodents at higher light levels is mostly reversible. Thus, for animals that have been shown to be susceptible to phototoxic retinopathy, light at the cage level should be between 130 and 325 lux.
Management practices, such as rotating cage
position relative to the light source (Greenman and others 1982)
or providing animals with ways to modify their own light exposure
by behavioral means (e.g., via tunneling or hiding in a structure),
can be used to reduce inappropriate light stimulation of animals.
Provision of variable-intensity light controls might be considered
as a means of ensuring that light intensities are consistent with
the needs of animals and personnel working in animal rooms and
with energy conservation. Such controls should have some form
of vernier scale and a lockable setting and should not be used
merely to turn room lighting on and off. The Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America (IESNA) handbook (Kaufman 1984, 1987)
can assist in decisions concerning lighting uniformity, color-rendering
index, shielding, glare control, reflection, lifetime, heat generation,
and ballast selection.
36 GUIDE FOR THE CAREAND USE OF LABORATORY
ANIMALS
Noise produced by animals and animal-care activities is inherent in the operation of an animal facility (Pfaff and Stecker 1976). Therefore, noise control should be considered in facility design and operation (Pekrul 1991). Assessment of the potential effects of noise on an animal warrants consideration of the intensity, frequency, rapidity of onset, duration, and vibration potential of the sound and the hearing range, noise-exposure history, and sound-effect susceptibility of the species, stock, or strain.
Separation of human and animal areas minimizes disturbances to both the human and animal occupants of the facility. Noisy animals-such as dogs, swine, goats, and nonhuman primates-should be housed away from quieter animals, such as rodents, rabbits, and cats. Environments should be designed to accommodate animals that make noise, rather than resorting to methods of noise reduction. Exposure to sound louder than 85 dB can have both auditory and nonauditory effects (Fletcher 1976; Peterson 1980), including eosinopenia and increased adrenal weights in rodents (Geber and others 1966; Nayfield and Besch 1981), reduced fertility in rodents (Zondek and Tamari 1964), and increased blood pressure in nonhuman primates (Peterson and others 1981). Many species can hear frequencies of sound that are inaudible to humans (Brown and Pye 1975; Warfield 1973), 50 the potential effects of equipment and materials that produce noise in the hearing range of nearby animals-such as video display terminals (Sales 1991) should be carefully considered. To the greatest extent possible, activities that might be noisy should be conducted in rooms or areas separate from those used for animal housing.
Because changes in patterns of sound exposure
have different effects on different animals (Armano and others
1985; Clough 1982), personnel should try to minimize the production
of unnecessary noise. Excessive and intermittent noise can be
minimized by training personnel in alternatives to practices that
produce noise and by the use of cushioned casters and bumpers
on carts, trucks, and racks. Radios, alarms, and other sound generators
should not be used in animal rooms unless they are parts of an
approved protocol or an enrichment program.
The structural environment consists of components
of the primary enclosure-cage furniture, equipment for environmental
enrichment, objects for manipulation by the animals, and cage
complexities. Depending on the animal species and use, the structural
environment should include resting boards, shelves or perches,
toys, foraging devices, nesting materials, tunnels, swings, or
other ob-
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 37
jects that increase opportunities for the
expression of species-typical postures and activities and enhance
the animals' well-being. Much has been learned in recent years
about the natural history and environmental needs of many animals,
but continuing research into those environments that enhance the
well-being of research animals is encouraged. Selected publications
that describe enrichment strategies for common laboratory animal
species are listed in Appendix A and in bibliographies prepared
by the Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC 1992; NRC In press).
Consideration should be given to an animal's social needs. The social environment usually involves physical contact and communication among members of the same species (conspecifics), although it can include noncontact communication among individuals through visual, auditory, and olfactory signals. When it is appropriate and compatible with the protocol, social animals should be housed in physical contact with conspecifics. For example, grouping of social primates or canids is often beneficial to them if groups comprise compatible individuals. Appropriate social interactions among conspecifics are essential for normal development in many species. A social companion might buffer the effects of a stressful situation (Gust and others 1994), reduce behavioral abnormality (Reinhardt and others 1988, 1989), increase opportunities for exercise (Whary and others 1993), and expand species-typical behavior and cognitive stimulation. Such factors as population density, ability to disperse, initial familiarity among animals, and social rank should be evaluated when animals are being grouped (Borer and others 1988; Diamond and others 1987; Drickamer 1977; Harvey and Chevins 1987; Ortiz and others 1985; Vandenbergh 1986, 1989). In selecting a suitable social environment, attention should be given to whether the animals are naturally territorial or communal and whether they should be housed singly, in pairs, or in groups. An understanding of species-typical natural social behavior will facilitate successful social housing.
However, not all members of a social species can or should be maintained socially; experimental, health, and behavioral reasons might preclude a successful outcome of this kind of housing. Social housing can increase the likelihood of animal wounds due to fighting (Bayne and others 1995), increase susceptibility to such metabolic disorders as atherosclerosis (Kaplan and others 1982), and alter behayior and physiologic functions (Bernstein 1964; Bernstein and others 1974a,b). In addition, differences between sexes in compatibility have been observed in various species (Crockett and others 1994; Grant and Macintosh 1963; Vandenbergh 1971; vom Saal 1984). These risks of social housing are greatly reduced if the animals are socially compatible and the social unit is stable.
It is desirable that social animals be housed in groups; however, when they must be housed alone, other forms of enrichment should be provided to compen-
38 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
sate for the absence of other animals, such as safe and positive
interaction with the care staff and enrichment of the structural
environment.
Animal activity typically implies motor activity but also includes cognitive activity and social interaction. Animals maintained in a laboratory environment might have a more-restricted activity profile than those in a free-ranging state. An animal's motor activity, including use of the vertical dimension, should be considered in evaluation of suitable housing or assessment of the appropriateness of the quantity or quality of an activity displayed by an animal. Forced activity for reasons other than attempts to meet therapeutic or approved protocol objectives should be avoided. In most species, physical activity that is repetitive, is non-goal-oriented, and excludes other behavior is considered undesirable (AWIC 1992; Bayne 1991; NRC In press; see also Appendix A, "Enrichment").
Animals should have opportunities to exhibit species-typical activity
patterns. Dogs, cats, and many other domesticated animals benefit
from positive human interaction (Rollin 1990). Dogs can be given
opportunities for activity by being walked on a leash, having
access to a run, or being moved into another area (such as a room,
larger cage, or out door pen) for social contact, play, or exploration.
Cages are often used for short-term housing of dogs for veterinary
care and some research purposes, but pens, runs, and other out-of-cage
areas provide more space for movement, and their use is encouraged
(Wolff and Rupert 1991). Loafing areas, exercise lots, and pastures
are suitable for large farm animals, such as sheep, horses, and
cattle.
Animals should be fed palatable, noncontaminated, and nutritionally adequate food daily or according to their particular requirements unless the protocol in which they are being used requires otherwise. Subcommittees of the National Research Council Committee on Animal Nutrition have prepared comprehensive treatments of the nutrient requirements of laboratory animals (NRC 1977, 1978, 1981a,b, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985a,b, 1986, 1988, 1989a,b, 1994, 1995). Their publications consider issues of quality assurance, freedom from chemical or microbial contaminants and presence of natural toxicants in feedstuffs, bioavailability of nutrients in feeds, and palatability.
Animal-colony managers should be judicious in purchasing, transporting,
storing, and handling food to minimize the introduction of diseases,
parasites, potential disease vectors (e.g., insects and other
vermin), and chemical contaminants into animal colonies. Purchasers
are encouraged to consider manufacturers'
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 39
and suppliers' procedures and practices for protecting and ensuring diet quality (e.g., storage, vermin-control, and handling procedures). Institutions should urge feed vendors to provide data from feed analysis for critical nutrients periodically. The date of manufacture and other factors that affect shelf-life of food should be known by the user. Stale food or food transported and stored inappropriately can become deficient in nutrients. Careful attention should be paid to quantities received in each shipment, and stock should be rotated so that the oldest food is used first.
Areas in which diets and diet ingredients are processed or stored should be kept clean and enclosed to prevent entry of pests. Food should be stored off the floor on pallets, racks, or carts. Unused, opened bags of food should be stored in vermin-proof containers to minimize contamination and to avoid potential spread of disease agents. Exposure to temperatures above 210C (700F), extremes in relative humidity, unsanitary conditions, light, oxygen, and insects and other vermin hasten the deterioration of food. Precautions should be taken if perishable items--such as meats, fruits, and vegetables--are fed, because storage conditions are potential sources of contamination and can lead to variation in food quality. Contaminants in food can have dramatic effects on biochemical and physiologic processes, even if the contaminants are present in concentrations too low to cause clinical signs of toxicity. For example, some contaminants induce the synthesis of hepatic enzymes that can alter an animal' 5 response to drugs (Ames and others 1993; Newberne 1975). Some experimental protocols might require the use of pretested animal diets in which both biologic and nonbiologic contaminants are identified and their concentrations documented.
Most natural-ingredient, dry laboratory-animal diets that contain preservatives and are stored properly can be used up to about 6 months after manufacture. Vitamin C in manufactured feeds, however, gene rally has a shelf-life of only 3 months. The use of stabilized forms of vitamin C can extend the shelf-life of feed. If a diet containing outdated vitamin C is to be fed to animals that require dietary vitamin C, it is necessary to provide an appropriate vitamin C supplement. Refrigeration preserves nutritional quality and lengthens shelf-life, but food-storage time should be reduced to the lowest practical period and the recommendations of manufacturers should be considered. Purified and chemically defined diets are often less stable than natural-ingredient diets, and their shelf-life is usually less than 6 months (Fullerton and others 1982); these diets should be stored at 40C (390F) or lower.
Autoclavable diets require adjustments in nutrient concentrations, kinds of ingredients, and methods of preparation to withstand degradation during sterilization (Wostman 1975). The date of sterilization should be recorded and the diet used quickly. Irradiated diets might be considered as an alternative to autoclaved diets.
Feeders should be designed and placed to allow easy access to
food and to minimize contamination with urine and feces. When
animals are housed in groups,
40 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
there should be enough space and enough feeding points to minimize competition for food and ensure access to food for all animals, especially if feed is restricted as part of the protocol or management routine. Food-storage containers should not be transferred between areas that pose different risks of contamination, and they should be cleaned and sanitized regularly.
Moderate restriction of calorie and protein intakes for clinical or husbandry reasons has been shown to increase longevity and decrease obesity, reproduction, and cancer rates in a number of species (Ames and others 1993; Keenan and others 1994). Such restriction can be achieved by decreasing metabolizable energy, protein density, or both in the diet or by controlling ration amount or frequency of feeding. The choice of mechanism for calorie restriction is species-dependent and will affect physiologic adaptations and alter metabolic responses (Leveille and Hanson 1966). Calorie restriction is an accepted practice for long-term housing of some species, such as some rodents and rabbits, and as an adjunct to some clinical and surgical procedures.
In some species (such as nonhuman primates) and on some occasions,
varying nutritionally balanced diets and providing "treats,"
including fresh vegetables, can be appropriate and improve well-being.
However, caution should be used in varying diets. A diet should
be nutritionally balanced; it is well documented that many animals
offered a cafeteria of unbalanced foods do not select a balanced
diet and become obese through selection of high-energy, low-protein
foods (Moore 1987). Abrupt changes in diet (which are difficult
to avoid at weaning) should be minimized because they can lead
to digestive and metabolic disturbances; these changes occur in
omnivores and carnivores, but herbivores (Eadie and Mann 1970)
are especially sensitive.
Ordinarily, animals should have access to potable, uncontaminated drinking water according to their particular requirements. Water quality and the definition of potable water can vary with locality (Homberger and others 1993). Periodic monitoring for pH, hardness, and microbial or chemical contamination might be necessary to ensure that water quality is acceptable, particularly for use in studies in which normal components of water in a given locality can influence the results obtained. Water can be treated or purified to minimize or eliminate contamination when protocols require highly purified water. The selection of water treatments should be carefully considered because many forms of water treatment have the potential to cause physiologic alterations, changes in microflora, or effects on experimental results (Fidler 1977; Hall and others 1980; Hermann and others 1982; Homberger and others 1993). For example, chlorination of the water supply can be useful for some species but toxic to others (such as aquatic species).
Watering devices, such as drinking tubes and automatic waterers,
should be
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 41
checked daily to ensure their proper maintenance, cleanliness,
and operation. Animals sometimes have to be trained to use automatic
watering devices. It is better to replace water bottles than to
refill them, because of the potential for microbiologic cross-contamination;
however, if bottles are refilled, care should be taken to replace
each bottle on the cage from which it was removed. Animals housed
in outdoor facilities might have access, to water in addition
to that provided in watering devices, such as that available in
streams or in puddles after a heavy rainfall. Care should be taken
to ensure that such accessory sources of water do not constitute
a hazard, but their availability need not routinely be prevented.
Animal bedding is a controllable environmental factor that can influence experimental data and animal well-being. The veterinarian or facility manager, in consultation with investigators, should select the most appropriate bedding material. No bedding is ideal for any given species under all management and experimental conditions, and none is ideal for all species (for example, bedding that enables burrowing is encouraged for some species). Several writers (Gibson and others 1987; Jones 1977; Kraft 1980; Thigpen and others 1989; Weichbrod and others 1986) have described desirable characteristics and means of evaluating bedding. Softwood beddings have been used, but the use of untreated softwood shavings and chips is contraindicated for some protocols because they can affect animals' metabolism (Vesell 1967; Vessell and others 1973, 1976). Cedar shavings are not recommended, because they emit aromatic hydrocarbons that induce hepatic microsomal enzymes and cytotoxicity (Torronen and others 1989; Weichbrod and others 1986, 1988) and have been reported to increase the incidence of cancer (Jacobs and Dieter 1978; Vlahakis 1977). Heat treatments applied before bedding materials are used reduce the concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons and might prevent this problem. Manufacturing, monitoring, and storage methods used by vendors should be considered when purchasing bedding products.
Bedding should be transported and stored off the floor on pallets, racks, or carts in a fashion consistent with maintenance of quality and minimization of contamination. During autoclaving, bedding can absorb moisture and as a result lose absorbency and support the growth of microorganisms. Therefore, appropriate drying times and storage conditions should be used.
Bedding should be used in amounts sufficient to keep animals dry
between cage changes, and, in the case of small laboratory animals,
care should be taken to keep the bedding from coming into contact
with the water tube, because such contact could cause leakage
of water into the cage.
42 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
Sanitation--the maintenance of conditions conducive to health--involves bedding change (as appropriate), cleaning, and disinfection. Cleaning removes excessive amounts of dirt and debris, and disinfection reduces or eliminates unacceptable concentrations of microorganisms.
The frequency and intensity of cleaning and disinfection should depend on what is needed to provide a healthy environment for an animal, in accord with its normal behavior and physiologic characteristics. Methods and frequencies of sanitation will vary with many factors, including the type, physical properties, and size of the enclosure; the type, number, size, age, and reproductive status of the animals; the use and type of bedding materials; temperature and relative humidity; the nature of the materials that create the need for sanitation; the normal physiologic and behavioral characteristics of the animals; and the rate of soiling of the surfaces of the enclosure. Some housing systems or experimental protocols might require specific husbandry techniques, such as aseptic handling or modification in the frequency of bedding change.
Agents designed to mask animal odors should not be used in animal-housing
facilities. They cannot substitute for good sanitation practices
or for the provision of adequate ventilation, and they expose
animals to volatile compounds that might alter basic physiologic
and metabolic processes.
Bedding Change
Soiled bedding should be removed and replaced with fresh materials
as often as is necessary to keep the animals clean and dry. The
frequency is a matter of professional judgment of animal care
personnel based on consultation with the investigator and depends
on such factors as the number and size of the animals in the primary
enclosure, the size of the enclosure, urinary and fecal output,
the appearance and wetness of the bedding, and experimental conditions,
such as those of surgery or debilitation, that might limit an
animal's movement or access to areas of the cage that have not
been soiled with urine and feces. There is no absolute minimal
frequency of changing bedding, but it typically varies from daily
to weekly. In some instances, frequent bedding changes are contraindicated,
such as during some portions of the prepartum or postpartum period,
when pheromones are essential for successful reproduction, or
when research objectives do not permit changing the bedding.
Cleaning and Disinfection of Primary Enclosures
For pens or runs, frequent flushing with water and periodic use
of detergents or disinfectants are usually appropriate to maintain
sufficiently clean surfaces. If animal waste is to be removed
by flushing, this will need to be done at least once
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 43
a day. Animals should be kept dry during such flushing. The timing of pen or run cleaning should take into account normal behavioral and physiologic processes of the animals; for example, the gastrocolic reflex in meal-fed animals results in defecation shortly after food consumption.
The frequency of sanitation of cages, cage racks, and associated equipment, such as feeders and watering devices, is governed to some extent by the types of caging and husbandry practices used, including the use of regularly changed contact or noncontact bedding, regular flushing of suspended catch pans, and the use of wire-bottom or perforated-bottom cages. In general, enclosures and accessories, such as tops, should be sanitized at least once every 2 weeks. Solid-bottom caging, bottles, and sipper tubes usually require sanitation at least once a week. Some types of cages and racking might require less-frequent cleaning or disinfection; these might include large cages with very low animal density and frequent bedding changes, cages that house animals in gnotobiotic conditions with frequent bedding changes, individually ventilated cages, and cages used for special circumstances. Some circumstances, such as microisolator housing or more densely populated enclosures, might require more frequent sanitation.
Rabbits and some rodents, such as guinea pigs and hamsters, produce urine with high concentrations of proteins and minerals. Minerals and organic compounds in the urine from these animals often adhere to cage surfaces and necessitate treatment with acid solutions before washing.
Primary enclosures can be disinfected with chemicals, hot water, or a combination of both. Washing times and conditions should be sufficient to kill vegetative forms of common bacteria and other organisms that are presumed to be controllable by the sanitation program. When hot water is used alone, it is the combined effect of the temperature and the length of time that a given temperature (cumulative heat factor) is applied to the surface of the item that disinfects. The same cumulative heat factor can be obtained by exposing organisms to very high temperatures for short periods or exposing them to lower temperatures for longer periods (Wardrip and others 1994). Effective disinfection can be achieved with wash and rinse water at 143-1800F or more. The traditional 82.20C (1800F) temperature requirement for rinse water refers to the water in the tank or in the sprayer manifold. Detergents and chemical disinfectants enhance the effectiveness of hot water but should be thoroughly rinsed from surfaces before reuse of the equipment.
Washing and disinfection of cages and equipment by hand with hot water and detergents or disinfectants can be effective but require attention to detail. It is particularly important to ensure that surfaces are rinsed free of residual chemicals and that personnel have appropriate equipment to protect themselves from exposure to hot water or chemical agents used in the process.
Water bottles, sipper tubes, stoppers, feeders, and other small
pieces of equipment should be washed with detergents, hot water,
and, where appropriate, chemical agents to destroy microorganisms.
44 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
If automatic watering systems are used, some mechanism to ensure that microorganisms and debris do not build up in the watering devices is recommended. The mechanism can be periodic flushing with large volumes of water or appropriate chemical agents followed by a thorough rinsing. Constant-recirculation loops that use properly maintained filters, ultraviolet lights, or other devices to sterilize recirculated water are also effective.
Conventional methods of cleaning and disinfection are adequate
for most animal-care equipment. However, if pathogenic microorganisms
are present or if animals with highly defined microbiologic flora
or compromised immune systems are maintained, it might be necessary
to sterilize caging and associated equipment after cleaning and
disinfection. Sterilizers should be regularly calibrated and monitored
to ensure their safety and effectiveness.
Cleaning and Disinfection of Secondary Enclosures
All components of the animal facility, including animal rooms and support spaces (such as storage areas, cage-washing facilities, corridors, and procedure rooms) should be cleaned regularly and disinfected as appropriate to the circumstances and at a frequency based on the use of the area and the nature of likely contamination.
Cleaning utensils should be assigned to specific areas and should
not be transported between areas that pose different risks of
contamination. Cleaning utensils themselves should be cleaned
regularly and should be constructed of materials that resist corrosion.
Worn items should be replaced regularly. The utensils should be
stored in a neat, organized fashion that facilitates drying and
minimizes contamination.
Assessing the Effectiveness of Sanitation
Monitoring of sanitation practices should be appropriate to the
process and materials being cleaned; it can include visual inspection
of the materials, monitoring of water temperatures, or microbiologic
monitoring. The intensity of animal odors, particularly that of
ammonia, should not be used as the sole means of assessing the
effectiveness of the sanitation program. A decision to alter the
frequency of cage-bedding changes or cage-washing should be based
on such factors as the concentration of ammonia, the appearance
of the cage, the condition of the bedding and the number and size
of animals housed in the cage.
Conventional, biologic, and hazardous waste should be removed
and disposed of regularly and safely (NSC 1979). There are several
options for effective waste disposal. Contracts with licensed
commercial waste-disposal firms usually
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT, HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 45
provide some assurance of regulatory compliance and safety. On-site incineration should comply with all federal, state, and local regulations.
Adequate numbers of properly labeled waste receptacles should be strategically placed throughout the facility. Waste containers should be leakproof and equipped with tight-fitting lids. It is good practice to use disposable liners and to wash containers and implements regularly. There should be a dedicated wastestorage area that can be kept free of insects and other vermin. If cold storage is used to hold material before disposal, a properly labeled, dedicated refrigerator, freezer, or cold room should be used.
Hazardous wastes must be rendered safe by sterilization, containment, or other appropriate means before being removed from the facility (US EPA 1986). Radioactive wastes should be maintained in properly labeled containers. Their disposal should be closely coordinated with radiation-safety specialists in accord with federal and state regulations. The federal government and most states and municipalities have regulations controlling disposal of hazardous wastes. Compliance with regulations concerning hazardous-agent use (Chapter 1) and disposal is an institutional responsibility.
Infectious animal carcasses can be incinerated on site or collected by a licensed contractor. Procedures for on-site packaging, labeling, transportation, and storage of these wastes should be integrated into occupational health and safety policies.
Hazardous wastes that are toxic, carcinogenic, flammable, corrosive,
reactive, or otherwise unstable should be placed in properly labeled
containers and disposed of as recommended by occupational health
and safety specialists. In some circumstances, these wastes can
be consolidated or blended.
Programs designed to prevent, control, or eliminate the presence
of or infestation by pests are essential in an animal environment.
A regularly scheduled and documented program of control and monitoring
should be implemented. The ideal program prevents the entry of
vermin into and eliminates harborage from the facility. For animals
in outdoor facilities, consideration should also be given to eliminating
or minimizing the potential risk associated with pests and predators.
Pesticides can induce toxic effects on research animals and interfere
with experimental procedures (Ohio Cooperative Extension Service
1987a,b), and they should be used in animal areas only when necessary.
Investigators whose animals might be exposed to pesticides should
be consulted before pesticides are used. Use of pesticides should
be recorded and coordinated with the animal-care management staff
and be in compliance with federal, state, or local regulations.
Whenever possible, nontoxic means of pest control, such as insect
growth regulators (Donahue and others 1989; Garg and Donahue 1989;
King and Bennett 1989) and nontoxic substances (for example, amorphous
silica gel), should be
46 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
used. If traps are used, methods should be humane; traps used
to catch pests alive require frequent observation and humane euthanasia
after capture.
Animals should be cared for by qualified personnel every day, including weekends and holidays, both to safeguard their well-being and to satisfy research requirements. Emergency veterinary care should be available after work hours, on weekends, and on holidays.
In the event of an emergency, institutional security personnel and fire or police officials should be able to reach people responsible for the animals. That can be enhanced by prominently posting emergency procedures, names, or telephone numbers in animal facilities or by placing them in the security department or telephone center. Emergency procedures for handling special facilities or operations should be prominently posted.
A disaster plan that takes into account both personnel and animals
should be prepared as part of the overall safety plan for the
animal facility. The colony manager or veterinarian, responsible
for the animals should be a member of the appropriate safety committee
at the institution. He or she should be an "official responder"
within the institution and should participate in the response
to a disaster (Casper 1991).
Means of animal identification include room, rack, pen, stall, and cage cards with written or bar-coded information; collars, bands, plates, and tabs; colored stains; ear notches and tags; tattoos; subcutaneous transponders; and freeze brands. Toe-clipping, as a method of identification of small rodents, should be used only when no other individual identification method is feasible and should be performed only on altricial neonates. Identification cards should include the source of the animal, the strain or stock, names and locations of the responsible investigators, pertinent dates, and protocol number, when applicable. Animal records are useful and can vary in type, ranging from limited information on identification cards to detailed computerized records for individual animals.
Clinical records for individual animals can also be valuable,
especially for dogs, cats, nonhuman primates, and farm animals.
They should include pertinent clinical and diagnostic information,
date of inoculations, history of surgical procedures and postoperative
care, and information on experimental use. Basic demographic information
and clinical histories enhance the value of individual animals
for both breeding and research and should be readily accessible
to investigators, veterinary staff, and animal-care staff. Records
of rearing histories, mat-
ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT HOUSING, AND MANAGEMENT 47
mg histories, and behavioral profiles are useful for the management of many species, especially nonhuman primates (NRC 1979a).
Records containing basic descriptive information are essential
for management of colonies of large long-lived animals and should
be maintained for each animal (Dyke 1993; NRC 1979a). These records
often include species, animal identifier, sire identifier, dam
identifier, sex, birth or acquisition date, source, exit date,
and final disposition. Such animal records are essential for genetic
management and historical assessments of colonies. Relevant recorded
information should be provided when animals are transferred between
institutions.
Genetic characteristics are important in regard to the selection and management of animals for use in breeding colonies and in biomedical research (see Appendix A). Pedigree information allows appropriate selection of breeding pairs and of experimental animals that are unrelated or of known relatedness.
Outbred animals are widely used in biomedical research. Founding populations should be large enough to ensure the long-term heterogeneity of breeding colonies. To facilitate direct comparison of research data derived from outbred animals, genetic-management techniques should be used to maintain genetic variability and equalize founder representations (for example, Lacy 1989; Poiley 1960; Williams-Blangero 1991). Genetic variability can be monitored with computer simulations, biochemical markers, DNA markers, immunologic markers, or quantitative genetic analyses of physiologic variables (MacCluer and others 1986; Williams-Blangero 1993).
Inbred strains of various species, especially rodents, have been developed to address specific research needs (Festing 1979; Gill 1980). The homozygosity of these animals enhances the reproducibility and comparability of some experimental data. It is important to monitor inbred animals periodically for genetic homozygosity (Festing 1982; Hedrich 1990). Several methods of monitoring have been developed that use immunologic, biochemical, and molecular techniques (Cramer 1983; Groen 1977; Hoffman and others 1980; Russell and others 1993). Appropriate management systems (Green 1981; Kempthome 1957) should be designed to minimize genetic contamination resulting from mutation and mismating.
Transgenic animals have at least one transferred gene whose site
of integration and number of integrated copies might or might
not have been controlled. Integrated genes can interact with background
genes and environmental factors, in part as a function of site
of integration, so each transgenic animal can be considered a
unique resource. Care should be taken to preserve such resources
through standard genetic-management procedures, including maintenance
of detailed pedigree records and genetic monitoring to verify
the presence and zygosity of transgenes. Cryopreservation of fertilized
embryos, ova, or spermatozoa
48 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
should also be considered to safeguard against alterations in transgenes over time or accidental loss of the colony.
Accurate recording, with standardized nomenclature where it is
available, of both the strain and substrain or of the genetic
background of animals used in a research project is important
(NRC 1979b). Several publications provide rules developed by international
committees for standardized nomenclature of outbred rodents and
rabbits (Festing and others 1972), inbred rats (Festing and Staats
1973; Gill 1984; NRC 1992a), inbred mice (International Committee
on Standardized Genetic Nomenclature for Mice 1981 a,b,c), and
transgenic animals
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Veterinary medical care is an essential part of an animal care
and use program. Adequate veterinary care consists of effective
programs for
A veterinary-care program is the responsibility of the attending
veterinarian, who is certified (see ACLAM, Appendix B) or has
training or experience in laboratory animal science and medicine
or in the care of the species being used. Some aspects of the
veterinary-care program can be conducted by persons other than
a veterinarian, but a mechanism for direct and frequent communication
should be established to ensure that timely and accurate information
is conveyed to the veterinarian on problems associated with animal
health, behavior, and well-being. The veterinarian must provide
guidance to investigators and all personnel involved in the care
and use of animals to ensure appropriate handling, immobilization,
sedation, analgesia, anesthesia, and euthanasia. The attending
veterinarian must provide guidance or oversight to surgery programs
and oversight of postsurgical care.
VETERINARY MEDICAL CARE 57
All animals must be acquired lawfully, and the receiving institution should make reasonable attempts to ensure that all transactions involving animal procurement are conducted in a lawful manner. If dogs and cats are obtained from USDA Class B dealers or pounds, the animals should be inspected to see whether they can be identified, as through the presence of tattoos or subcutaneous transponders. Such identification might indicate that an animal was a pet, and ownership should be verified. Attention should be given to the population status of the taxon under consideration; the threatened or endangered status of species is provided and updated annually by the Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI 50 CFR 17). The use of purpose-bred research animals might be desirable if it is consistent with research, teaching, and testing objectives.
Potential vendors should be evaluated for the quality of animals supplied by them. As a rule, vendors of purpose-bred animals (e.g., USDA Class A dealers) regularly provide information that describes the genetic and pathogen status of their colonies or individual animals. This information is useful for deciding on acceptance or rejection of animals, and similar data should be obtained on animals received by interinstitutional or intrainstitutional transfer (such as transgenic mice).
All transportation of animals, including intrainstitutional transportation, should be planned to minimize transit time and the risk of zoonoses, protect against environmental extremes, avoid overcrowding, provide food and water when indicated, and protect against physical trauma. Some transportation-related stress is inevitable, but it can be minimized by attention to those factors. Each shipment of animals should be inspected for compliance with procurement specifications and signs of clinical disease and should be quarantined and stabilized according to procedures appropriate for the species and the circumstances. Coordination of ordering and receiving with animal-care personnel is important to ensure that animals are received properly and that appropriate facilities are available for housing.
Several documents provide details on transportation, including
the AWRs and the International Air Transport Association Live
Animal Regulations (IATA 1995). In addition, import of
primates is regulated by the Public Health Service (CFR Title
42) with specific guidelines for tuberculin testing (CDC 1993).
There are special requirements for importing and transporting
African green, cynomolgus, and rhesus monkeys (FR 1990; CDC 1991).
Disease prevention is an essential component of comprehensive
veterinary medical care. Effective preventive-medicine programs
enhance the research value of animals by maintaining healthy animals
and minimizing nonprotocol sources
58 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
of variation associated with disease and inapparent infection.
These programs consist of various combinations of policies, procedures,
and practices related to quarantine and stabilization and the
separation of animals by species, source, and health status.
Quarantine is the separation of newly received animals from those already in the facility until the health and possibly the microbial status of the newly received animals have been determined. An effective quarantine minimizes the chance for introduction of pathogens into an established colony. The veterinary medical staff should have procedures for evaluating the health and, if appropriate, the pathogen status of newly received animals, and the procedures should reflect acceptable veterinary medical practice and federal and state regulations applicable to zoonoses (Butler and others 1995). Effective quarantine procedures should be used for nonhuman primates to help limit exposure of humans to zoonotic infections. Filoviral and mycobacterial infections in nonhuman primates have recently necessitated specific guidelines for handling nonhuman primates (CDC 1991, 1993). Information from vendors on animal quality should be sufficient to enable a veterinarian to determine the length of quarantine, to define the potential risks to personnel and animals within the colony, to determine whether therapy is required before animals are released from quarantine, and, in the case of rodents, to determine whether cesarean rederivation or embryo transfer is required to free the animals of specific pathogens. Rodents might not require quarantine if data from the vendor or provider are sufficiently current and complete to define the health status of the incoming animals and if the potential for exposure to pathogens during transit is considered. When quarantine is indicated, animals from one shipment should be separated from animals from other shipments (not necessarily from each other) to preclude transfer of infectious agents between groups.
Regardless of the duration of quarantine, newly received animals should be given a period for physiologic, psychologic, and nutritional stabilization before their use. The length of time for stabilization will depend on the type and duration of animal transportation, the species involved, and the intended use of the animals. The need for a stabilization period has been demonstrated in mice, rats, guinea pigs, and goats; it is probably required for other species as well (Drozdowicz and others 1990; Jelinek 1971; Landi and others 1982; Prasad and others 1978; Sanhouri and others 1989; Tuli and others 1995; Wallace 1976).
Physical separation of animals by species is recommended to prevent
interspecies disease transmission and to eliminate anxiety and
possible physiologic and behavioral changes due to interspecies
conflict. Such separation is usually accomplished by housing different
species in separate rooms; however, cubicles, laminar-flow units,
cages that have filtered air or separate ventilation,
VETERINARY MEDICAL CARE 59
and isolators might be suitable alternatives. In some instances,
it might be acceptable to house different species in the same
room, for example, if two species have a similar pathogen status
and are behaviorally compatible. Some species can have subclinical
or latent infections that can cause clinical disease if transmitted
to another species. A few examples might serve as a guide in determining
the need for separate housing by species:
Intraspecies separation might be essential when animals obtained
from multiple sites or sources, either commercial or institutional,
differ in pathogen status, e.g., sialodacryoadenitis virus in
rats, mouse hepatitis virus, Pasteurella multocida in rabbits,
for Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (formerly Herpesvirus
simiac) in macaque species, and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae
in swine.
All animals should be observed for signs of illness, injury, or abnormal behavior by a person trained to recognize such signs. As a rule, this should occur daily, but more-frequent observations might be warranted, such as during postoperative recovery or when animals are ill or have a physical deficit. There might also be situations in which daily observations of each animal is impractical, for example, when animals are housed in large outdoor settings. Professional judgment should be used to ensure that the frequency and character of observation minimize risks to individual animals.
It is imperative that appropriate methods be in place for disease
surveillance and diagnosis. Unexpected deaths and signs of illness,
distress, or other deviations from normal in animals should be
reported promptly to ensure appropriate
60 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
and timely delivery of veterinary medical care. Animals that show signs of a contagious disease should be isolated from healthy animals in the colony. If an entire room of animals is known or believed to be exposed to an infectious agent (e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis in nonhuman primates), the group should be kept intact during the process of diagnosis, treatment, and control.
Methods of disease prevention, diagnosis, and therapy should be those currently accepted in veterinary practice. Diagnostic laboratory services facilitate veterinary medical care and can include gross and microscopic pathology, clinical pathology, hematology, microbiology, clinical chemistry, and serology. The choice of medication or therapy should be made by the veterinarian in consultation with the investigator. The selected treatment plan should be therapeutically sound and, when possible, should cause no undesirable experimental variable.
Subclinical microbial, particularly viral, infections (see Appendix A) occur frequently in conventionally maintained rodents but also can occur in facilities designed and maintained for production and use of pathogen-free rodents if a component of the microbial barrier is breached. Examples of infectious agents that can be subclinical but induce profound immunologic changes or alter physiologic, pharmacologic, or toxicologic responses are Sendai virus, Kilham rat virus, mouse hepatitis virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, and Mycoplasma pulinonis (NRC 199 la,b). Scientific objectives of a particular protocol, the consequences of infection within a specific strain of rodent, and the adverse effects that infectious agents might have on other protocols in a facility should determine the characteristics of rodent health-surveillance programs and strategies for keeping rodents free of specific pathogens.
The principal method for detecting viral infections is serologic
testing. Other methods of detecting microbial infections, such
as bacterial culturing and histopathology and DNA analysis using
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), should be used in combinations
that are most suitable for specific requirements of clinical and
research programs. Transplantable tumors, hybridomas, cell lines,
and other biologic materials can be sources of murine viruses
that can contaminate rodents (Nicklas and others 1993). The mouse-antibody-production
(MAP), rat-antibody-production (RAP), and hamster-antibody-production
(HAP) tests are effective in monitoring for viral contamination
of biologic materials (de Souza and Smith 1989; NRC 1991c) and
should be considered.
Appropriate attention to presurgical planning, personnel training,
aseptic and surgical technique, animal well-being, and animal
physiologic status during all phases of a protocol will enhance
the outcome of surgery (see Appendix A, "Anesthesia, Pain,
and Surgery"). The individual impact of those factors will
vary according to the complexity of procedures involved and the
species of animal used. A team approach to a surgical project
often increases the likelihood
VETERINARY MEDICAL CARE 61
of a successful outcome by providing input from persons with different expertise (Brown and Schofield 1994; Brown and others 1993).
A continuing and thorough assessment of surgical outcomes should be performed to ensure that appropriate procedures are followed and timely corrective changes instituted. Modification of standard techniques might be desirable or even required (for instance, in rodent or field surgery), but it should not compromise the well-being of the animals. In the event of modification, assessment of outcomes should be even more intense and might have to incorporate criteria other than obvious clinical morbidity and mortality.
Presurgical planning should include input from all members of the surgical team, including the surgeon, anesthetist, veterinarian, surgical technicians, animal-care staff, and investigator. The surgical plan should identify personnel, their roles and training needs, and equipment and supplies required for the procedures planned (Cunliffe-Beamer 1993); the location and nature of the facilities in which the procedures will be conducted; and preoperative animal-health assessment and postoperative care (Brown and Schofield 1994). If a nonsterile part of an animal, such as the gastrointestinal tract, is to be surgically exposed or if a procedure is likely to cause immunosuppression, preoperative antibiotics might be appropriate (Klement and others 1987). However, the use of antibiotics should never be considered as a replacement for aseptic procedures.
It is important that persons have had appropriate training to ensure that good surgical technique is practiced, that is, asepsis, gentle tissue handling, minimal dissection of tissue, appropriate use of instruments, effective hemostasis, and correct use of suture materials and patterns (Chaffee 1974; Wingfield 1979). People performing and assisting in surgical procedures in a research setting often have a wide range of educational backgrounds and might require various levels and kinds of training before they participate in surgical procedures on animals. For example, persons trained in human surgery might need training in inter species variations in anatomy, physiology, and the effects of anesthetic and analgesic drugs, or in postoperative requirements. Training guidelines for research surgery commensurate with a person's background are available (ASR 1989) to assist institutions in developing appropriate training programs. The PHS Policy and the AWRs place responsibility with the IACUC for determining that personnel performing surgical procedures are appropriately qualified and trained in the procedures to be performed.
In general, surgical procedures are categorized as major or minor
and in the laboratory setting can be further divided into survival
and nonsurvival. Major survival surgery penetrates and exposes
a body cavity or produces substantial impairment of physical or
physiologic functions (such as laparotomy, thoracotomy, craniotomy,
joint replacement, and limb amputation). Minor survival surgery
does not expose a body cavity and causes little or no physical
impairment (such as wound suturing; peripheral-vessel cannulation;
such routine farm-ani-
62 GUlDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
mal procedures as castration, dehorning, and repair of prolapses; and most procedures routinely done on an "outpatient" basis in veterinary clinical practice).
Minor procedures are often performed under less-stringent conditions than major procedures but still require aseptic technique and instruments and appropriate anesthesia. Although laparoscopic procedures are often performed on an "outpatient" basis, appropriate aseptic technique is necessary if a body cavity is penetrated.
In nonsurvival surgery, an animal is euthanatized before recovery from anesthesia. It might not be necessary to follow all the techniques outlined in this section if nonsurvival surgery is performed; however, at a minimum, the surgical site should be clipped, the surgeon should wear gloves, and the instruments and surrounding area should be clean (Slattum and others 1991).
Emergency situations sometimes require immediate surgical correction under less than ideal conditions. For example, if an animal maintained outdoors needs surgical attention, movement to a surgical facility might pose an unacceptable risk to the animal or be impractical. Such situations often require more-intensive aftercare and might pose a greater risk of postoperative complications. The appropriate course of action requires veterinary medical judgment.
Aseptic technique is used to reduce microbial contamination to the lowest possible practical level (Cunliffe-Beamer 1993). No procedure, piece of equipment, or germicide alone can achieve that objective (Schonholtz 1976). Aseptic technique requires the input and cooperation of everyone who enters the operating suite (Belkin 1992; McWilliams 1976). The contribution and importance of each practice varies with the procedure. Aseptic technique includes preparation of the patient, such as hair removal and disinfection of the operative site (Hofmann 1979); preparation of the surgeon. such as the provision of decontaminated surgical attire, surgical scrub, and sterile surgical gloves (Chamberlain and Houang 1984; Pereira and others 1990; Schonholtz 1976); sterilization of instruments, supplies, and implanted materials (Kagan 1992b); and the use of operative techniques to reduce the likelihood of infection (Ayliffe 1991; Kagan 1 992a; Ritter and Marmion 1987; Schofield 1994; Whyte 1988).
Specific sterilization methods should be selected on the basis of physical characteristics of materials to be sterilized (Schofield 1994). Autoclaving and gas sterilization are common effective methods. Sterilization indicators should be used to identify materials that have undergone proper sterilization (Berg 1993). Liquid chemical sterilants should be used with adequate contact times, and instruments should be rinsed with sterile water or saline before use. Alcohol is neither a sterilant nor a high-level disinfectant (Rutala 1990).
In general, unless an exception is specifically justified as an
essential component of the research protocol and approved by the
IACUC, nonrodent aseptic surgery should be conducted only in facilities
intended for that purpose. Most bacteria are carried on airborne
particles or fomites, so surgical facilities should be maintained
and operated in a manner that ensures cleanliness and minimizes
VETERINARY MEDICAL CARE 63
unnecessary traffic (AORN 1982; Bartley 1993). In some circumstances, it might be necessary to use an operating room for other purposes. In such cases, it is imperative that the room be returned to an appropriate level of cleanliness before its use for major survival surgery.
Careful surgical monitoring and timely attention to problems increase the likelihood of a successful surgical outcome. Monitoring includes checking of anesthetic depth and physiologic function and assessment of clinical signs and conditions. Maintenance of normal body temperature minimizes cardiovascular and respiratory disturbances caused by anesthetic agents (Dardai and Heavner 1987) and is of particular importance.
The species of animal influences the components and intensity of the surgical program. The relative susceptibility of rodents to surgical infection has been debated; available data suggest that subclinical infections can cause adverse physiologic and behavioral responses (Beamer 1972; Bradfield and others 1992; Cunliffe-Beamer 1990; Waynforth 1980, 1987) that can affect both surgical success and research results. Some characteristics of common laboratory-rodent surgery-such as smaller incision sites, fewer personnel in the surgical team, manipulation of multiple animals at one sitting, and briefer procedures-as opposed to surgery in larger species, can make modifications in standard aseptic techniques necessary or desirable (Brown 1994; Cunliffe-Beamer 1993). Useful suggestions for dealing with some of the unique challenges of rodent surgery have been published (Cunliffe-Beamer 1983, 1993).
Generally, farm animals maintained for biomedical research should undergo surgery with procedures and in facilities compatible with the guidelines set forth in this section. However, some minor and emergency procedures that are commonly performed in clinical veterinary practice and in commercial agricultural settings may be conducted under less-stringent conditions than experimental surgical procedures in a biomedical-research setting. Even when conducted in an agricultural setting, these procedures require the use of appropriate aseptic technique, sedatives, analgesics, anesthetics, and conditions commensurate with the risk to the animal's health and well-being. But they might not require the intensive surgical settings, facilities, and procedures outlined here.
Presurgical planning should specify the requirements of postsurgical
monitoring, care, and record-keeping, including the personnel
who will perform these duties. The investigator and veterinarian
share responsibility for ensuring that postsurgical care is appropriate.
An important component of postsurgical care is observation of
the animal and intervention as required during recovery from anesthesia
and surgery. The intensity of monitoring necessary will vary with
the species and the procedure and might be greater during the
immediate anestheticrecovery period than later in postoperative
recovery. During the anesthetic-recovery period, the animal should
be in a clean, dry area where it can be observed often by trained
personnel. Particular attention should be given to thermoregulation,
cardiovascular and respiratory function, and postoperative pain
or discom-
64 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
fort during recovery from anesthesia. Additional care might be warranted, including administration of parenteral fluids for maintenance of water and electrolyte balance (FBR 1987), analgesics, and other drugs; care for surgical incisions; and maintenance of appropriate medical records.
After anesthetic recovery, monitoring is often less intense but
should include attention to basic biologic functions of intake
and elimination and behavioral signs of postoperative pain, monitoring
for postsurgical infections, monitoring of the surgical incision,
bandaging as appropriate, and timely removal of skin sutures,
clips, or staples (UFAW 1989).
An integral component of veterinary medical care is prevention or alleviation of pain associated with procedural and surgical protocols. Pain is a complex experience that typically results from stimuli that damage tissue or have the potential to damage tissue. The ability to experience and respond to pain is widespread in the animal kingdom. A painful stimulus prompts withdrawal and evasive action. Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals. The proper use of anesthetics and analgesics in research animals is an ethical and scientific imperative. Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals (NRC 1992) is a source of information about the basis and control of pain (see also Appendix A).
Fundamental to the relief of pain in animals is the ability to recognize its clinical signs in specific species (Hughes and Lang 1983; Soma 1987). Species vary in their response to pain (Breazile 1987; Morton and Griffiths 1985; Wright and others 1985), 50 criteria for assessing pain in various species differ. Some species-specific behavioral manifestations of pain or distress are used as indicators, for example, vocalization, depression or other behavioral changes, abnormal appearance or posture, and immobility (NRC 1992). It is therefore essential that personnel caring for and using animals be very familiar with species-specific (and individual) behavioral, physiologic, and biochemical indicators of wellbeing (Dresser 1988; Dubner 1987; Kitchen and others 1987). In general, unless the contrary is known or established it should be assumed that procedures that cause pain in humans also cause pain in animals (IRAC 1985).
The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic
should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical
and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects
of the research protocol. Preoperative or intraoperative administration
of analgesics might enhance postsurgical analgesia. The selection
depends on many factors, such as the species and age of the animal,
the type and degree of pain, the likely effects of particular
agents on specific organ systems, the length of the operative
procedure, and the safety of an agent for an animal, particularly
if a physiologic deficit is induced by a surgical or other experimental
procedure. Such devices as precision vaporizers and respi-
VETERINARY MEDICAL CARE 65
rators increase the safety and choices of inhalation agents for use in rodents and other small species.
Some classes of drugs-such as sedatives, anxiolytics, and neuromuscular blocking agents-are not analgesic or anesthetic and thus do not relieve pain; however, they might be used in combination with appropriate analgesics and anesthetics. Neuromuscular blocking agents (e.g., pancuronium) are sometimes used to paralyze skeletal muscles during surgery in which general anesthetics have been administered (Klein 1987). When these agents are used during surgery or in any other painful procedure, many signs of anesthetic depth are eliminated because of the paralysis. However, autonomic nervous system changes (e.g., sudden changes in heart rate and blood pressure) can be indicators of pain related to an inadequate depth of anesthesia. If paralyzing agents are to be used, it is recommended that the appropriate amount of anesthetic be first defined on the basis of results of a similar procedure that used the anesthetic without a blocking agent (NRC 1992).
In addition to anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers, nonpharmacologic control of pain is often effective (NRC 1992; Spinelli 1990).
Neuromuscular blocking drugs, as noted earlier, do not provide
relief from pain. They are used to paralyze skeletal muscles while
an animal is fully anesthetized. They might be used in properly
ventilated conscious animals for specific types of nonpainful,
well-controlled neurophysiologic studies. However, it is imperative
that any such proposed use be carefully evaluated by the IACUC
to ensure the well-being of the animal because acute stress is
believed to be a consequence of paralysis in a conscious state
and it is known that humans, if conscious, can experience distress
when paralyzed with these drugs (NRC 1992; Van Sluyters and Oberdorfer
1991).
Euthanasia is the act of killing animals by methods that induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or distress. Unless a deviation is justified for scientific or medical reasons, methods should be consistent with the 1993 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia (AVMA 1993 or later editions). In evaluating the appropriateness of methods, some of the criteria that should be considered are ability to induce loss of consciousness and death with no or only momentary pain, distress, or anxiety; reliability; nonreversibility; time required to induce unconsciousness; species and age limitations; compatibility with research objectives; and safety of and emotional effect on personnel.
Euthanasia might be necessary at the end of a protocol or as a
means to relieve pain or distress that cannot be alleviated by
analgesics, sedatives, or other treatments. Protocols should include
criteria for initiating euthanasia, such as degree of a physical
or behavioral deficit or tumor size, that will enable a prompt
66 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
decision to be made by the veterinarian and the investigator to ensure that the end point is humane and the objective of the protocol is achieved.
Euthanasia should be carried out in a manner that avoids animal distress. In some cases, vocalization and release of pheromones occur during induction of unconsciousness. For that reason, other animals should not be present when euthanasia is performed (AVMA 1993).
The selection of specific agents and methods for euthanasia will depend on the species involved and the objectives of the protocol. Generally, inhalant or noninhalant chemical agents (such as barbiturates, nonexplosive inhalant anesthetics, and CO2) are preferable to physical methods (such as cervical dislocation, decapitation, and use of a penetrating captive bolt). However, scientific considerations might preclude the use of chemical agents for some protocols. All methods of euthanasia should be reviewed and approved by the IACUC.
It is essential that euthanasia be performed by personnel who
are skilled in methods for the species in question and that it
be performed in a professional and compassionate manner. Death
should be confirmed by personnel who can recognize cessation of
vital signs in the species being euthanatized. Euthanatizing animals
is psychologically difficult for some animal-care, veterinary,
and research personnel, particularly if they are involved in performing
euthanasia repetitively or if they have become emotionally attached
to the animals being euthanatized (Arluke 1990; NRC 1992; Rollin
1986; Wolfle 1985). When delegating euthanasia responsibilities,
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tumors, cell lines, and monoclonal antibodies with rodent viruses.
Lab. Anim. Sci. 43:296-299.
NRC (National Research Council). 1991a. Barrier programs. Pp.17-20
in Infectious Diseases of
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Mice and Rats. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal
Resources Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
NRC (National Research Council). 1991b. Individual disease agents
and their effects on research. Pp.31-258 in Infectious Diseases
of Mice and Rats. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal
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D.C.: National Academy Press.
NRC (National Research Council). 1991c. Health Surveillance Programs.
Pp.21-27 in Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. A report of
the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Infectious
Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington, D.C.: National Academy
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NRC (National Research Council). 1992. Recognition and Alleviation
of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute
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Palmer, A. E., A. M. Allen, N. M. Tauraso, and A. Skelokov. 1968.
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of an outbreak among quarantined monkeys. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.
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Pereira, L. J., G.M. Lee, and K. J. Wade. 1990. The effect of
surgical handwashing routines on the microbial counts of operating
room nurses. Am. J. Inf. Control. 1 8(6):354-364.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1996. Public Health Service Policy
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of a conditioning method on general safety test in guinea pigs.
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Ritter, M. A.. and P. Marmion. 1987. The exogenous sources and
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Rollin, B. 1986. Euthanasia and moral stress. In Loss, Grief and
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Rutala. W. A. 1990. APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants.
Am. J. Inf. Control 18(2):99-1 17.
Sanhouri A. A., R. S. Jones, and H. Dobson. 1989. The effects
of different types of transportation on plasma cortisol and testosterone
concentrations in male goats. Br. Vet. 3.145:446-450.
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A well-planned, well-designed, well-constructed, and properly maintained facility is an important element of good animal care and use, and it facilitates efficient, economical, and safe operation (see Appendix A, "Design and Construction of Animal Facilities"). The design and size of an animal facility depend on the scope of institutional research activities, the animals to be housed, the physical relationship to the rest of the institution, and the geographic location. Effective planning and design should include input from personnel experienced with animal-facility design and operation and from representative users of the proposed facility. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of new facilities and caging might be beneficial (Reynolds and Hughes 1994). An animal facility should be designed and constructed in accord with all applicable state and local building codes. Modular units (such as custom-designed trailers or prefabricated structures) should comply with construction guidelines described in this chapter.
Good animal management and human comfort and health protection
require separation of animal facilities from personnel areas,
such as offices and conference rooms. Separation can be accomplished
by having the animal quarters in a separate building, wing, floor,
or room. Careful planning should make it possible to place animal-housing
areas next to or near research laboratories but separated from
them by barriers, such as entry locks, corridors, or floors. Animals
should be housed in facilities dedicated to or assigned for that
purpose and should not be housed in laboratories merely for convenience.
If animals must be maintained in a laboratory area to satisfy
a protocol, the area should be appropriate to house and
72 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
care for the animals; if needed, measures should be taken to minimize occupational hazards related to exposure to animals.
Building materials should be selected to facilitate efficient
and hygienic operation of animal facilities. Durable, moisture-proof,
fire-resistant, seamless materials are most desirable for interior
surfaces. Surfaces should be highly resistant to the effects of
cleaning agents, scrubbing, high-pressure sprays, and impact.
Paints and glazes should be nontoxic if used on surfaces with
which animals will have direct contact. In the construction of
outdoor facilities, consideration should be given to surfaces
that withstand the elements and can be easily maintained.
Professional judgment should be exercised in the development of a practical, functional, and efficient physical plant for animal care and use. The size, nature, and intensity of an institutional animal program will determine the specific facility and support functions needed. In facilities that are small, maintain few animals, or maintain animals under special conditions--such as facilities used exclusively for housing gnotobiotic or specific--pathogen-free (SPF) colonies or animals in runs, pens, or outdoor housing-some functional areas listed below might be unnecessary or might be included in a multipurpose area.
Space is required for
Most multipurpose animal facilities also include the following:
PHYSICAL PLANT 73
Corridors should be wide enough to facilitate the movement of
personnel and equipment. Corridors 6-8 ft wide can accommodate
the needs of most facilities. Floor-wall junctions should be designed
to facilitate cleaning. In corridors leading to dog and swine
housing facilities, cage-washing facilities, and other high-noise
areas, double-door entry or other noise traps should be considered.
Wherever possible, water lines, drainpipes, electric-service connections,
and other utilities should be accessible through access panels
or chases in corridors outside the animal rooms. Fire alarms,
fire extinguishers, and telephones should be recessed or installed
high enough to prevent damage from the movement of large equipment.
For safety, doors should open into animal rooms; however, if it
is necessary that they open toward a corridor, there should be
recessed vestibules. Doors with viewing windows might be preferable
for safety and other reasons. However, the ability to cover viewing
windows might be considered in situations where exposure to light
or hallway activities would be undesirable. Doors should be large
enough (approximately 42 x 84 in) to allow the easy passage
of racks and equipment. Doors should fit tightly within their
frames, and both doors and frames should be appropriately sealed
to prevent vermin entry or harborage. Doors should be constructed
of and, where appropriate, coated with materials that resist corrosion.
Self-closing doors equipped with recessed or shielded handles,
threshold sweeps, and kickplates are usually preferred. Where
room-level security is necessary or it is desirable to limit access
(as in the case of the use of hazardous agents), room doors should
be equipped with locks. Doors should be designed to be opened
from the inside without a key.
Windows are acceptable in some animal rooms and can constitute
a type of environmental enrichment for some species, especially
nonhuman primates, dogs,
74 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
some agricultural animals, and other large mammals. The effects
of windows on temperature, photoperiod control, and security should
be considered in design decisions. Where temperature cannot be
regulated properly because of heat loss or gain through the windows
or where photoperiod is an important consideration (as in breeding
colonies of rodents), exterior windows usually are inappropriate.
Floors should be moisture-resistant, nonabsorbent, impact-resistant,
and relatively smooth, although textured surfaces might be required
in some high-moisture areas and for some species (such as farm
animals). Floors should be resistant to the action of urine and
other biologic materials and to the adverse effects of hot water
and cleaning agents. They should be capable of supporting racks,
equipment, and stored items without becoming gouged, cracked,
or pitted. Depending on their use, floors should be monolithic
or have a minimal number of joints. Some materials that have proved
satisfactory are epoxy aggregates, hard-surface sealed concrete,
and special hardened rubber-base aggregates. Correct installation
is essential to ensure long-term stability of the surface. If
sills are installed at the entrance to a room, they should be
designed to allow for convenient passage of equipment.
Where floor drains are used, the floors should be sloped and drain traps kept filled with liquid. To minimize humidity, drainage should allow rapid removal of water and drying of surfaces (Gorton and Besch 1974). Drainpipes should be at least 4 in (10.2 cm) in diameter. In some areas, such as dog kennels and farm-animal facilities, larger drain pipes are recommended. A rim-flush drain or heavy-duty disposal unit set in the floor might be useful for the disposal of solid waste. When drains are not in use for long periods, they should be capped and sealed to prevent backflow of sewer gases and other contaminants; lockable drain covers might be advisable for this purpose in some circumstances.
Floor drains are not essential in all animal rooms, particularly
those housing rodents. Floors in such rooms can be sanitized satisfactorily
by wet vacuuming or mopping with appropriate cleaning compounds
or disinfectants.
Walls should be smooth, moisture-resistant, nonabsorbent, and
resistant to damage from impact. They should be free of cracks,
of unsealed utility penetrations, and of imperfect junctions with
doors, ceilings, floors, and corners. Surface materials should
be capable of withstanding cleaning with detergents and disinfectants
and the impact of water under high pressure. The use of curbs,
guardrails
PHYSICAL PLANT 75
or bumpers, and corner guards should be considered to protect
walls and corners from damage.
Ceilings should be smooth, moisture-resistant, and free of imperfect
junctions. Surface materials should be capable of withstanding
cleaning with detergents and disinfectants. Ceilings of plaster
or fire-proof plasterboard should be sealed and finished with
a washable paint. Ceilings formed by the concrete floor above
are satisfactory if they are smoothed and sealed or are painted.
Generally, suspended ceilings are undesirable unless they are
fabricated of impervious materials and free of imperfect junctions.
Exposed plumbing, ductwork, and light fixtures are undesirable
unless the surfaces can be readily cleaned.
Temperature and humidity control minimizes variations due either to changing climatic conditions or to differences in the number and kind of animals in a room. Air-conditioning is an effective means of regulating temperature and humidity. HVAC systems should be designed for reliability, ease of maintenance, and energy conservation. They should be able to meet requirements for animals as discussed in Chapter 2. A system should be capable of adjustments in dry-bulb temperatures of +10C (+20F). The relative humidity should generally be maintained within a range of 30-70% throughout the year. Temperature is best regulated by having thermostatic control for each room. Use of a zonal control for multiple rooms can result in temperature variations between the "master-control" animal room and the other rooms in the zone because of differences in animal densities within the rooms and heat gain or loss in ventilation ducts and other surfaces within the zone.
Regular monitoring of the HVAC system is important and is best done at the individual-room level. Previously specified temperature and humidity ranges can be modified to meet special animal needs in circumstances in which all or most of the animal facility is designed exclusively for acclimated species with similar requirements (for example, when animals are held in a sheltered or outdoor facility).
Brief and infrequent, moderate fluctuations in temperature and
relative humidity outside suggested ranges are well tolerated
by most species commonly used in research. Most HVAC systems are
designed for average high and low temperatures and humidities
experienced in a geographic area within +5% variation (ASHRAE
1993). When extremes in external ambient conditions that are beyond
design specifications occur, provisions should be in place to
minimize the magnitude and duration of fluctuations in temperature
and relative humidity outside the recommended ranges. Such measures
can include partial redundancy,
76 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
partial recycling of air, altered ventilation rates, or the use of auxiliary equipment. In the event of a partial HVAC system failure, systems should be designed to supply facility needs at a reduced level. It is essential that life-threatening heat accumulation or loss be prevented during mechanical failure. Totally redundant systems are seldom practical or necessary except under special circumstances (as in some biohazard areas). Temporary needs for ventilation of sheltered or outdoor facilities can usually be met with auxiliary equipment.
In some instances, high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are recommended for air supplied to animal-holding, procedural, and surgical facilities. Also, consideration should be given to the regulation of air-pressure differentials in surgical, procedural, housing, and service areas. For example, areas for quarantine, housing, and use of animals exposed to hazardous materials and for housing of nonhuman primates should be kept under relative negative pressure, whereas areas for surgery, for clean-equipment storage, and for housing of pathogen-free animals should be kept under relative positive pressure with clean air. Maintaining air-pressure differentials is not the principal or only method by which cross contamination is controlled and should not be relied on for containment. Few air-handling systems have the necessary controls or capacity to maintain pressure differentials across doors or similar structures when they are opened for even brief periods. Containment requires the use of biologic-safety cabinets and exhausted airlocks or other means, some of which are described in Chapter 1.
If recirculated air is used, its quality and quantity should be
in accord with recommendations in Chapter 2. The type and efficiency
of air treatment should be matched to the quantity and types of
contaminants and to the risks that they pose.
The electric system should be safe and provide appropriate lighting, a sufficient number of power outlets, and suitable amperage for specialized equipment. In the event of power failure, an alternative or emergency power supply should be available to maintain critical services (for example, the HVAC system) or support functions (for example, freezers, ventilated racks, and isolators) in animal rooms, operating suites, and other essential areas.
Light fixtures, timers, switches, and outlets should be properly
sealed to prevent vermin from living there. Recessed energy-efficient
fluorescent lights are most commonly used in animal facilities.
A time-controlled lighting system should be used to ensure a uniform
diurnal lighting cycle. Timer performance and timer-overriding
systems should be checked regularly to ensure proper cycling.
Light bulbs or fixtures should be equipped with protective covers
to ensure the safety of the animals and personnel. Moisture-resistant
switches and outlets and ground-fault interrupters should be used
in areas with high water use, such as cage-washing areas and aquarium-maintenance
areas.
PHYSICAL PLANT 77
Adequate space should be provided for storage of equipment, supplies,
food, bedding, and refuse. Corridors used for passage of personnel
or equipment are not appropriate storage are as. Storage space
can be minimized when delivery is reliable and frequent. Bedding
and food should be stored in a separate area in which materials
that pose a risk of contamination from toxic or hazardous substances
are not stored. Refuse-storage areas should be separated from
other storage areas (see Chapter 2). Refrigerated storage, separated
from other cold storage, is essential for storage of dead animals
and animal-tissue waste; this storage area should be kept below
70C (44.60F) to reduce putrefaction of wastes
and animal carcasses.
Noise control is an important consideration in an animal facility (see Chapter 2). Noise-producing support functions, such as cage-washing, are commonly separated from housing and experimental functions. Masonry walls are more effective than metal or plaster walls in containing noise because their density reduces sound transmission. Generally, acoustic materials applied directly to the ceiling or as part of a suspended ceiling of an animal room present problems for sanitation and vermin control and are not recommended. However, sanitizable sound-attenuating materials bonded to walls or ceilings might be appropriate for noise control in some situations. Experience has shown that well-constructed corridor doors, sound-attenuating doors, or double-door entry can help to control the transmission of sound along corridors.
Attention should be paid to attenuating noise generated by equipment.
Fire and environmental-monitoring alarm systems and public-address
systems should be selected and located to minimize potential animal
exposure. The much-higher frequencies that are capable of being
discriminated by some species make it important to consider the
location of equipment capable of generating sound at ultrasonic
frequencies.
A dedicated, central area for sanitizing cages and ancillary equipment
should be provided. Mechanical cage-washing equipment is generally
needed and should be selected to match the types of caging and
equipment used. Consideration should be given to such factors
as
78 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
The design of a surgical facility should accommodate the species to be operated on and the complexity of the procedures to be performed (Hessler 1991; see also Appendix A, "Design and Construction of Animal Facilities"). For most rodent surgery, a facility may be small and simple, such as a dedicated space in a laboratory appropriately managed to minimize contamination from other activities in the room during surgery. The facility often becomes larger and more complex as the number of animals, the size of animals, or the complexity of procedures increases, for instance, large-volume rodent procedures, the need for special restraint devices, hydraulic operating tables, and floor drains for farm-animal surgery, and procedures that require large surgical teams and support equipment and thus large space. The relationship of surgical facilities to diagnostic laboratories, radiology facilities, animal housing, staff offices, and so on should be considered in the overall context of the complexity of the surgical program. Surgical facilities should be sufficiently separate from other areas to minimize unnecessary traffic and decrease the potential for contamination (Humphreys 1993). Centralized facilities provide important advantages in cost savings in equipment, conservation of space and personnel resources, reduced transit of animals, and enhanced professional oversight of facilities and procedures.
For most surgical programs, functional components of aseptic surgery
include surgical support, animal preparation, surgeon's scrub,
operating room, and postoperative recovery. The areas that support
those functions should be designed to minimize traffic flow and
separate the related, nonsurgical activities from the surgical
procedure in the operating room. The separation is best achieved
by physical barriers (AORN 1982) but might also be achieved by
distance between areas or by the timing of appropriate cleaning
and disinfection between activities. The number of personnel and
their level of activity have been shown to be directly related
to the level of bacterial contamination and the incidence of
PHYSICAL PLANT 79
postoperative wound infection (Fitzgerald 1979). Traffic in the operating room itself can be reduced by the installation of an observation window, a communication system (such as an intercom system), and judicious location of doors.
Control of contamination and ease of cleaning should be key considerations in the design of a surgical facility. The interior surfaces should be constructed of materials that are monolithic and impervious to moisture. Ventilation systems supplying filtered air at positive pressure can reduce the risk of postoperative infection (Ayscue 1986; Bartley 1993; Bourdillon 1946; Schonholtz 1976). Careful location of air supply and exhaust ducts and appropriate room-ventilation rates are also recommended to minimize contamination (Ayliffe 1991; Bartley 1993; Holton and Ridgway 1993; Humphreys 1993). To facilitate cleaning, the operating rooms should have as little fixed equipment as possible (Schonholtz 1976; UFAW 1989). Other features of the operating room to consider include surgical lights to provide adequate illumination (Ayscue 1986), sufficient electric outlets for support equipment, and gas-scavenging capability.
The surgical-support area should be designed for washing and sterilizing instruments and for storing instruments and supplies. Autoclaves are commonly placed in this area. It is often desirable to have a large sink in the animal-preparation area to facilitate cleaning of the animal and the operative site. A dressing area should be provided for personnel to change into surgical attire; a multipurpose locker room can serve this function. There should be a scrub area for surgeons, equipped with foot, knee, or electric-eye surgical sinks (Knecht and others 1981). To minimize the potential for contamination of the surgical site by aerosols generated during scrubbing, the scrub area is usually outside the operating room.
A postoperative-recovery area should provide the physical environment
to support the needs of the animal during the period of anesthetic
and immediate postsurgical recovery and should be so placed as
to allow adequate observation of the animal during this period.
The electric and mechanical requirements of monitoring and support
equipment should be considered. The type of caging and support
equipment will depend on the species and types of procedures but
should be designed to be easily cleaned and to support physiologic
functions, such as thermoregulation and respiration. Depending
on the circumstances, a postoperative recovery area for farm animals
might be modified or nonexistent in some field situations, but
precautions should be taken to minimize risk of injury to recovering
animals.
AORN (Association of Operating Room Nurses). 1982. Recommended
practices for traffic patterns in the surgical suite. Assoc. Oper.
Room Nurs. J. 15(4):750-758.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating. Refrigeration. and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Inc.). 1993. Chapter 24: Weather Data. In 1993 ASHRAE
Handbook: Fundamentals. I-P edition. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
80 GUIDE FOR THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS
Ayliffe, C. A. J. 1991. Role of the environment of the operating
suite in surgical wound infection. Rev. of Infec. Dis. 13(Suppl
10):5800-5804.
Ayscue, D. 1986. Operating room design: Accommodating lasers.
Assoc. Oper. Room Nurs. J. 41:1278-1285.
Bartley. J. M. 1993. Environmental control: Operating room air
quality. Today's O.R. Nurse 15(5)11-18.
Bourdillon, R. B. 1946. Air hygiene in dressing-rooms for burns
or major wounds. The Lancet :601-605.
Fitzgerald, R. H. 1979. Microbiologic environment of the conventional
operating room. Arch. Surg. 114:772-775.
Gorton, R. L., and E. L. Besch. 1974. Air temperature and humidity
response to cleaning water loads in laboratory animal storage
facilities. ASHRAE Trans. 80:37-52.
Hessler, J. R. 1991. Facilities to support research. Pp.34-55
in Handbook of Facility Planning. Vol. 2: Laboratory Animal Facilities,
T. Ruys, ed. New York: Van Nostrand. 422 pp.
Holton, J., and C. L. Ridgway. 1993. Commissioning operating theatres.
J. Hosp. Infec. 23:153-160. Humphreys, H. 1993. Infection control
and the design of a new operating theatre suite. J. Hosp. Infec.
23:61-70.
Knecht, C. D., A. R. Allen, D. J. Williams, and J. H. Johnson.
1981. Fundamental Techniques in Veterinary Surgery, 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
W. B. Saunders.
Reynolds, S. D., and H. Hughes. 1994. Design and optimization
of airflow patterns. Lab Anim. 23(9):46-49.
Schonholtz, C. J. 1976. Maintenance of aseptic barriers in the
conventional operating room. J. Bone and Joint Surg. 58-A(4):439-445.
UFAW (Universities Federation for Animal Welfare). 1989. Guidelines
on the Care of Laboratory Animals and Their Use for Scientific
Purposes: III Surgical Procedures. Herts, UK: UFAW.
Administration and Management, 82
Alternatives, 82
Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fishes, 83
Anesthesia, Pain, and Surgery, 83
Animal Models and Resources, 85
Biohazards in Animal Research, 85
Birds, 87
Cats and Dogs, 87
Design and Construction of Animal Facilities, 87
Enrichment, 88
Environmental Contaminants, 88
Ethics, 89
Euthanasia, 89
Exotic, Wild, and Zoo Animals, 89
Farrn Animals, 90
General References, 91
Genetics and Nomenclature, 91
Laboratory Animal Care, 92
Laws, Regulations, Policies, 93
Nonhuman Primates, 93
Nutrition, 94
Other Animals, 95
Parasitology, 95
Pathology and Clinical Pathology, 96
82 APPENDIX A: SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 96
Rodents and Rabbits, 97
Sample Size and Experimental Design, 98
Serial Publications, 99
Technical and Professional Education, 100
Welfare, 101
Animal Care and Use Committees Bibliography. T. Allen and K. Clingerman. 1992. Beltsville. Md.:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library (Publication #5RB92-16). 38 pp.
Animal Care and Use: Policy Issues in the 1990's. National Institutes of Health/Office for the Protection from Research Risks (NIH/OPRR). 1989. Proceedings of NIH/OPRR Conference, Bethesda, Md.
Cost Analysis and Rate Setting Manual for Animal Resource Facilities. Animal Resources Program (ARP), Division of Research Resources (DRR), National Institutes of Health (NIH). 1979 revised. NIH Pub. No.80-2006. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 115 pp. (Available from ARP, DRR, NIH. Building 31, Room 5B59, Bethesda, MD 20205).
Effective Animal Care and Use Committees. F. B. Orlans, R. C. Simmonds, and W. J. Dodds, eds. 1987. In Laboratory Animal Science. Special Issue, January 1987. Published in collaboration with the Scientists Center for Animal Welfare.
Essentials for Animal Research: A Primer for Research Personnel. B. T. Bennett, M. J. Brown, and J. C. Schofield. 1994. Beltsville, Md.: National Agricultural Library. 126 pp.
Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, Volume 1, 2nd ed. E. D. Olfert, B. M. Cross, and A. A. Mc William, eds. 1993. Ontario, Canada: Canadian Council on Animal Care. 211 pp.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee Guidebook. NIHIOPRR. 1992. NIH. Pub. 92-3415. (IACUC duties. special considerations. federal regulations. references and resources.)
Laboratory Animal Medical Subject Headings, A Report. NRC (National Research Council). 1972. A report of the ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources) Committee on Laboratory Animal Literature. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. 212 pp.
Reference Materials for Members of Animal Care and Use Committees.
D. J. Berry. 1991. Beltsville, Md.: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
National Agricultural Library (AWIC series #10). 42 pp.
Alternative Methods for Toxicity Testing: Regulatory Policy Issues. EPA-230112-85-029. NTIS PB8-6-113404/AS. Office of Policy. Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC 20460.
Alternatives to Animal Use in Research. Testing, and Education. Office of Technology Assessment (OTA-BA-273). U.S. Gov. Printing Office. Washington, DC 20402.
Alternatives to Current Uses of Animals in Research, Safety Testing, and Education. M. L. Stephens. 1986. Washington, D.C.: Humane Society of the United States. 86 pp.
Alternatives to Pain in Experiments on Animals. D. Pratt. 1980.
Argus Archives. 283 pp. Animals and Alternatives in Testing: History,
Science, and Ethics. J. Zurlo, D. Rudacile, and A. M. Goldberg.
1994. New York: Mary Ann Liebert Publishers. 86 pp.
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The Principles of Humane Experimental Techniques. W. M. S. Russell
and R. L. Burch. 1959. London: Methuen & Co. 238 pp. (Reprinted
as a Special Edition in 1992 by the Universities Federation for
Animal Welfare.)
Artificial Seawaters: Formulas and Methods. J. P. Bidwell and S. Spotte. 1985. Boston: Jones and Bartlett.
The Care and Use of Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish in Research. D. O. Schaeffer. K. M. Kleinow. and L. Krulisch, eds. 1992. Proceedings from a SCAW/LSU-SVM-sponsored conference, April 8-9, 1991, New Orleans, La. Greenbelt. Md.: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare.
Disease Diagnosis and Control in North American Marine Aquaculture. 2nd rev. ed. C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lichtner. 1988. New York: Elsevier. 426 pp.
Diseases of Fishes, Book 2A, Bacterial Diseases of Fishes. C. L. Bullock, D. A. Conroy. and S. F. Snieszko. 1971. Neptune, N.J.: T. F. H. Publications. 151 pp.
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Mouse News Letter (semiannual). Available to the western hemisphere and Japan from The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609; available to other locations from Mrs. A. Wilcox, MRC Experimental Embryology and Teratology Unit, Woodmansterne Road, Carshalton, Surrey SMS 4EF, England.
Our Animal Wards. Washington, D.C.: Wards.
Primates: A Journal of Primatology (quarterly). Aichi, Japan: Japan Monkey Centre.
Rat News Letter (semiannual). Available from Dr. D. V. Cramer, ed., Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261.
Resource. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Council on Animal Care.
SCAW Newsletter (quarterly). Bethesda, Md.: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare.
Zeitschrift fuer Versuchstierkunde, Journal of Experimental Animal Science (irregular, approximately 6 issues per year). Jena, Germany: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
Zoo Biology (bimonthly). New York: Wiley-Liss.
Zoological Society of London Symposia (annual). Oxford: Oxford
Science.
Clinical Textbook for Veterinary Technicians. 3rd ed. D. M. McCurnin. 1993. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. 816 pp.
Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. National Research Council. 1991. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science. Washington, National Academy Press. 152 pp.
The Education and Training of Laboratory Animal Technicians. S. Erichsen, W. J. I. van der Gulden, O. Hanninen, G. J. R. Hovell, L. Kallai, and M. Khemmani. 1976. Prepared for the International Committee on Laboratory Animals. Geneva: World Health Organization. 42 pp.
Educational Opportunities in Comparative Pathology-United States and Foreign Countries. Registry of Comparative Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 1992. Washington, D.C.: Universities Associated for Research and Education in Pathology. 51 pp.
Laboratory Animal Medicine: Guidelines for Education and Training. ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources) Committee on Education. 1979. ILAR News 22(2):Ml-M26.
Laboratory Animal Medicine and Science Audiotutorial Series. G. L. Van Hoosier, Jr., Coordinator. 1976-1979. Distributed by Health Sciences Learning Resources Center. University of Washington, Seattle.
Lesson Plans: Instructional Guide for Technician Training. 1990. AALAS (American Association for Laboratory Animal Science) Pub. No.90-1. Joliet, Ill.: American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. 450 pp.
Training Manual Series, Vol.1., Assistant Laboratory Animal Technicians. AALAS (American Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1989. AALAS Pub. No.89-1. Joliet, Ill.: American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. 454 pp.
Training Manual Series, Vol.11., Laboratory Animal Technicians. AALAS (American Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1990. AALAS Pub. No.90-2. Joliet, Ill.: American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. 248 pp.
Training Manual Series, Vol.111, Laboratory Animal Technologist.
AALAS (American Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1991.
AALAS Pub. No.91-3. Joliet, Ill.: American Association for Laboratory
Animal Science. 462 pp.
APPENDIX A: SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 101
Syllabus of the Basic Principles of Laboratory Animal Science. Ad Hoc Committee on Education of the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC). 1984. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care. 46 pp. (Available from CCAC, 1105-151 Slater Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H3, Canada).
Syllabus for the Laboratory Animal Technologist. AALAS (American
Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1972. AALAS Pub. No.72-2.
Joliet, Ill.: American Association f()r Laboratory Animal Science.
462 pp.
Laboratory Animal Welfare Bibliography. W. T. Carlson, G. Schneider, J. Rogers, et al. 1988. Beltsville, Md.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library. 60 pp.
Laboratory Animal Welfare Bibliography. Scientists Center for Animal Welfare. 1988. Bethesda, Md.: Scientist Center for Animal Welfare. 60 pp.
Laboratory Animal Welfare. 1979-April 1989. C. N. Bebee, ed. 1989. Beltsville, Md.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library. 102 pp.
Laboratory Animal Welfare: Supplement 8. National Library of Medicine (NLM) Current Bibliographies in Medicine Series. Compiled by F. P. Gluckstein. 1992. CBM No.92-2. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 86 citations: 14 pp. (Available from Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.).
Scientific Perspective on Animal Welfare. W. J. Dodds and F. B.
Orlans, eds. 1982. New York: Academic Press. 131 pp.
American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal
Care (AAALAC), 11300 Rockville Pike, Suite 1211, Rockville,
MD 20852-3035 (phone: 301-231-5353; fax: 301-231-8282;
e-mail: accredit@ aaalac.org).
This nonprofit organization was formed in 1965 by leading U.S. scientific and educational organizations to promote high-quality animal care, use, and well being and to enhance life-sciences research and education through a voluntary accreditation program. Any institution maintaining, using, importing, or breeding laboratory animals for scientific purposes is eligible to apply for AAALAC accreditation. The animal-care facilities of applicant institutions are visited and the program of animal care and use thoroughly evaluated by experts in laboratory animal science, who submit a detailed report to the Council on Accreditation. The council reviews applications and site-visit reports, using guidelines in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, to determine whether full accreditation should be awarded. Accredited institutions are required to submit annual reports on the status of their animal facilities, and site revisits are conducted at intervals of 3 years or less. The Council on Accreditation reviews the annual and site-revisit reports to determine whether full accreditation should continue.
Fully accredited animal-care facilities receive a certificate
of accreditation and are included on a list of such facilities
published by the association. Many private biomedical organization
strongly recommend that all grantees be supported by an AAALAC-accredited
animal program. Full accreditation by AAALAC is accepted by the
Office for Protection from Research Risks of the
APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS 103
National Institutes of Health as strong evidence that the animal
facilities are in compliance with Public Health Service policy.
American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS),
70 Timber Creek Drive, Suite S, Cordova, TN 38018 (phone:
901-754-8620; fax: 901-753-0046; e-mail: info @ aalas.org; URL:
http://Iwww.aalas.orgl).
AALAS is a professional, nonprofit organization of persons and
institutions concerned with the production, care, and study of
animals used in biomedical research. The organization provides
a medium for the exchange of scientific information on all phases
of laboratory animal care and use through its educational activities
and certification. AALAS is dedicated to advancing and disseminating
knowledge about the responsible care and use of laboratory animals
for the benefit of human and animal life. AALAS publishes Laboratory
Animal Science (bimonthly journal), Contemporary Topics
(bimonthly journal), training manuals for laboratory animal
technicians, an annual membership directory, a directory of certified
technologists, and occasional pamphlets on special subjects. AALAS
answers inquiries; conducts certification program for laboratory
animal technicians; conducts annual scientific sessions at which
original papers are presented, with seminars and workshops on
laboratory animal science; distributes publications; lends film
and slide sets; and makes referrals to other sources of information.
Services are available to anyone.
American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine (ACLAM), Dr.
Charles W. McPherson, Executive Director, 200 Summerwinds Drive,
Cary, NC 27511 (phone: 919-859-5985; fax: 919-851-3126).
ACLAM is a specialty board recognized by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). It was founded in 1957 to encourage education, training, and research; to establish standards of training and experience for qualification; and to certify, by examination, qualified laboratory animal specialists as diplomates. To achieve these goals, the college seeks to interest veterinarians in furthering both training and qualifications in laboratory animal medicine.
The annual ACLAM Forum is a major continuing-education meeting.
ACLAM also meets and sponsors programs in conjunction with the
annual meetings of AVMA and the American Association for Laboratory
Animal Science. It emphasizes and sponsors continuing-education
programs; cosponsors symposia; cosponsors about 30 autotutorial
programs on use, husbandry, and diseases of animals commonly used
in research; and has produced 14 volumes on laboratory subjects,
such as The Laboratory Rat and The Mouse in Biomedical
Research.
American Humane Association (AHA), 236 Massachusetts Avenue,
NE, Suite 203, Washington, D.C. 20002 (phone: 202-543-7780; fax:
202-546-3266).
104 APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
AHA is a professional, nonprofit organization of organizations and individuals concerned with the exploitation, abuse, and neglect of children and animals. AHA was founded in 1877 and was the first national organization to protect children and animals.
AHA supports the 3 R's in biomedical research: refinement, reduction,
and replacement where possible. AHA informs its members of issues
in biomedical research through its magazine, Advocate, which
is published quarterly.
American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners (ASLAP),
Dr. Bradford S. Goodwin, Jr., Secretary-Treasurer,
University of Texas, Medical SchoolCLAMC, 6431 Fannin Street,
Room 1132, Houston, TX 77030-1501 (phone: 713-792-5127; fax: 713-794-4177).
ASLAP, founded in 1966, is open to any graduate of a veterinary
college accredited or recognized by the American Veterinary Medical
Association (AVMA) or Canadian Veterinary Medical Association
(CVMA) who is engaged in laboratory animal practice and maintains
membership in AVMA, CVMA, or any other national veterinary medical
association recognized by AVMA. Its purpose is to disseminate
ideas, experiences, and knowledge among veterinarians engaged
in laboratory animal practice through education, training, and
research at both predoctoral and postdoctoral levels. Two educational
meetings are held annually, one each in conjunction with the annual
meetings of AVMA and the American Association for Laboratory Animal
Science.
American Society of Primatologists (ASP), Regional Primate
Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (URL:
http://www.asp.org).
The purposes of ASP are exclusively educational and scientific-specifically,
to promote and encourage the discovery and exchange of information
regarding primates, including all aspects of their anatomy, behavior,
development, ecology, evolution, genetics, nutrition, physiology,
reproduction, systematic, conservation, husbandry, and use in
biomedical research. The ASP holds an annual meeting, sponsors
the American Journal of Primatology, and publishes the
ASP Bulletin quarterly. Any person engaged in scientific primatology
or interested in supporting the goals of the society may apply
for membership. Membership and information about the International
Primatological Society can be obtained from ASP.
American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), 1931 North
Meacham Road, Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360 (phone: 800-248-2862;
fax: 708-925-1329; URL: http://Iwww.avma.org/).
AVMA is the major national organization of veterinarians. Its
objective is to
APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS 105
advance the science and art of veterinary medicine, including
its relationship to public health and agriculture. AVMA is the
recognized accrediting agency for schools and colleges of veterinary
medicine. It promotes specialization in veterinary medicine through
the formal recognition of specialty-certifying organizations,
including the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine.
The AVMA Committee on Animal Technician Activities and Training
accredits 2-year programs in animal technology at institutions
of higher learning throughout the United States. A list of accredited
programs and a summary of individual state laws and regulations
relative to veterinarians and animal technicians are available
from AVMA.
Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC), National Agricultural
Library, 5th floor, Beltsville, MD 20705-2351 (phone: 301-504-6212;
fax: 301-504-7125; e-mail: awic @nal.usda.gov; URL: http:Ilnetvet.wustl.edulawic.htm
or http:II www.nalusda.gov).
AWIC, at the National Agricultural Library, was established by
the 1985 amendments to the Animal Welfare Act. It provides
information on employee training, improved methods of experimentation
(including alternatives), and animal-care and animal-use topics
through the production of bibliographies, workshops, resource
guides, and The Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter.
AWIC services are geared toward those who must comply with
the Animal Welfare Act, such as researchers, veterinarians, exhibitors,
and dealers. Publications and additional information are available
from AWIC.
Animal Welfare Institute (Awl), P.O. Box 3650, Washington,
DC 20007 (phone: 202-337-2332; fax: 202-338-9478; e-mail: awi@igc.apc.org).
AWI is a nonprofit educational organization dedicated to reducing
the pain and fear inflicted on animals by humans. Since its founding
in 1951, AWI has promoted humane treatment of laboratory animals,
emphasizing the importance of socialization, exercise, and environmental
enhancement. The institute supports the "3 R' s": replacement
of experimental animals with alternatives, refinement to reduce
animal pain and suffering, and reduction in the numbers of animals
used. Educational material published by AWI includes the AWI
Quarterly, Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Beyond
the Laboratory Door, and Animals and Their Legal Rights and
is available free to scientific institutions and libraries and
at cost to others. The institute welcomes correspondence and discussion
with scientists, technicians, and IACUC members on improving the
lives of laboratory animals.
Association of Primate Veterinarians (APV), Dr. Dan Dalgard,
Secretary,
106 APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
Corning Hazieton, 9200 Leesburg Turnpike, Vienna, VA 22162-1699
(phone: 703-893-5400 ext. 5390; fax: 703-759-6947).
APV is a nonprofit organization whose missions are to promote
the dissemination of information related to the health, care,
and welfare of nonhuman primates and to provide a mechanism by
which primate veterinarians can speak collectively on matters
regarding nonhuman primates. The organization developed after
an initial workshop on the clinical care of nonhuman primates
held in 1973 at the National Institutes of Health. Six years later,
bylaws were adopted to formalize the missions and operation of
the group. Members of APV are veterinarians who are concerned
with the health, care, and welfare of nonhuman primates. The association
meets annually, publishes a quarterly newsletter, and contributes
to other scholarly and regulatory efforts and issues concerning
nonhuman primates.
Australia and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in
Research and Teaching (ANZCCART): ANZCCART Australia, The
Executive Officer, P0 Box 19, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064,
(phone: +61-8-303-7393; fax: +61-8-303-7113; e-mail: anzccart@waite.adelaide.edu.au;
URL: http:l/www. adelaide.edu.au/ANZCCARTI); ANZCCART New Zealand,
The Executive Officer, C/- The Royal Society of New Zealand,
P0 Box 598 , Wellington, New Zealand (phone: -64-4-472 7421; fax:
-64-4-473 1841; e-mail: anzccart@rsnz.govt.nz; URL: http:llwww.adelaide.edu.auIANZCCART/).
ANZCCART was established in 1987 in response to concerns in both
the scientific and the wider communities about the use of animals
in research and teaching. ANZCCART is an independent body that
has been developed to provide a national focus for these issues.
Through its varied activities, ANZCCART seeks to promote effective
communication and cooperation between all those concerned with
the care and use of animals in research and teaching. ANZCCART's
missions are to promote excellence in the care of animals used
in research and teaching and thereby minimize their discomfort,
to ensure that the outcomes of the scientific uses of animals
are worthwhile, and to foster informed and responsible discussion
and debate within the scientific and wider communities regarding
the scientific uses of animals.
Canadian Association for Laboratory Animal Medicine/L'Association
canadienne de la medecine des animaux de laboratoire (CALAMIACMAL),
Dr. Brenda Cross, Secretary-Treasurer, 102 Animal Resources
Centre, 120 Maintenance Road, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada 57N 5C4.
CALAM/ACMAL is a national organization of veterinarians with an
interest
APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS 107
in laboratory animal medicine. The association's missions are
to advise interested parties on all matters pertaining to laboratory
animal medicine, to further the education of its members, and
to promote ethics and professionalism in the field. The association
is committed to the provision of appropriate veterinary care for
all animals used in research, teaching, or testing. The association
publishes a newsletter, Interface, four times a year.
Canadian Association for Laboratory Animal ScienceIL'association
canadienne pour la technologie des animeaux laboratoire (CALASIACTAL),
Dr. Donald McKay, Executive Secretary, CW4O1 Biological Science
Building, Bioscience Animal Service, University of Alberta, Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9 (phone: 403-492-5193; fax: 403-492-7257;
e-mail: dmckay @ gpu. srv.ualberta.ca).
CALAS/ACTAL is composed of a multidisciplinary group of people
and institutions concerned with the care and use of laboratory
animals in research, teaching, and testing. The aims of the association
are to advance the knowledge, skills, and status of those who
care for and use laboratory animals; to improve the standards
of animal care and research; and to provide a forum for the exchange
and dissemination of knowledge regarding animal care and research.
CALASI ACTAL maintains a Registry for Laboratory Animal Technicians,
publishes a newsletter six times a year, and hosts an annual national
convention.
Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC), Constitution Square,
Tower II, 315-350 Albert, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1R 1B1 (phone:
613-238-4031; fax: 613-238-2837; e-mail: ccac@carleton.ca).
CCAC, founded in 1968 under the aegis of the Association of Universities
and Colleges of Canada, became an independently incorporated,
autonomous organization in 1982. Through its development of guidelines,
assessment visits, and educational/consultation programs, the
CCAC is the main advisory and review agency for the use of animals
in Canadian science. Compliance with CCAC guidelines, published
in two volumes, is a requirement for the receipt of grants or
contracts. CCAC is currently funded by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Council of Canada, the Medical Research Council of
Canada, and some federal departments.
Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns
Hopkins University, 111 Market Place, Suite 840, Baltimore, MD
21202-6709 (phone: 410-223-1693; fax: 410-223-1603; e-mail: caat@jhuhyg.sph.jhu.edu;
URL: http:II infonet.welchjhu.edu/~caat/).
CAAT was founded in 1981 to develop alternatives to the use of
whole
108 APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
animals for product development and safety testing. Although CAAT's mission focuses primarily on the development of alternatives for testing, the center also works with organizations seeking to implement the 3 R's in research and education. These organizations are throughout the world, primarily in North America, Europe, Australia, and Japan.
CAAT is an academic research center based in the School of Hygiene and Public Health at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, whose programs encompass laboratory research, education/information, and validation of alternative methods.
CAAT's primary outreach to scientific and lay audiences its newsletter,
which is published three times a year. A newsletter for middle-school
students, CAATALYST, is published three times a year.
Center for Animals and Public Policy, Tufts University,
School of Veterinary Medicine, 200 Westboro Road, N. Grafton,
MA 01536 (phone: 508-839-7991; fax: 508-839-2953; e-mail: dpease@
opal.tufts.edu).
The center is a unit of Tufts School of Veterinary Medicine that
deals with all aspects of human-animal interactions. The center
publishes two newsletters (The Animal Policy Report, quarterly;
The Alternatives Report, bimonthly) and other reports and
related items, including The Animal Research Controversy, a
200-page report that includes an appendix on the animal-protection
movement. The center also has established an MS program in animals
and public policy, a 1-year program directed at persons with a
graduate degree or equivalent life experience.
Foundation for Biomedical Research (FBR), 818 Connecticut
Avenue, NW, Suite 303, Washington, DC 20006 (phone: 202-457-0654;
fax 202-457-0659; email: nabr-fbr@access.digex.net; URL: http:I/www.fiesta.com/fbr).
FBR is a nonprofit, educational organization dedicated to promoting
public understanding and support of the ethical use of animals
in medical research. The Foundation has a wide range of educational
materials available for students as well as the general public,
including brochures, booklets, videotapes, speaker' 5 kits, posters,
and is a source of information on education and training materials
related to laboratory animal science. FRB hosts press events and
assists members of the media in locating researchers to address
issues regarding animal research.
The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS), 2100 L
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037 (phone: 202-452-1100; fax: 301-258-3082;
e-mail: HSUSLAB @ix.netcom.com).
HSUS is the nation's largest animal-protection organization. The
society is active on a wide variety of humane issues, including
those affecting wildlife,
APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS 109
companion animals, and animals in laboratories and on farms. HSUS
publishes a quarterly magazine (The HSUS News), a newsletter
(The Animal Activist Alert), and a variety of reports,
brochures, and other advocacy materials. The society works actively
on issues involving the use of animals in research, safety testing,
and education. This work is spearheaded by the HSUS Animal Research
Issues Section, with the aid of a Scientific Advisory Council.
The aims of this research are to promote the 3 R's of replacement,
reduction, and refinement; strong regulations and their enforcement;
openness and accountability among research institutions; and an
end to egregious mistreatment of animals. HSUS pursues these aims
through educational, legislative, legal, and investigative means.
Staff are available to give presentations and write articles on
these topics.
Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (ILAR), National
Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418 (phone: 202-334-2590; fax: 202-334-1687;
e-mail: ILAR@nas.edu; ILAR Journal e-mail: ILARJ @nas.edu;
URL: http:I/www2.nas.edulilarhome).
ILAR develops guidelines and disseminates information on the scientific,
technologic, and ethical use of animals and related biologic resources
in research, testing, and education. ILAR promotes high-quality,
humane care of animals and the appropriate use of animals and
alternatives. ILAR functions within the mission of the National
Academy of Sciences as an adviser to the federal government, the
biomedical research community, and the public. ILAR Journal
is published quarterly and is distributed to scientists, biomedical
administrators, medical libraries, and students.
International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS), Dr. Steven
Pakes, Secretary General, Division of Comparative Medicine, University
of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard,
Dallas, TX (phone: 214-648-3340; fax: 214-648-2659; e-mail: spakes
@mednet.swmed.edu).
ICLAS is an international nongovernment scientific organization that was founded in 1961 under the auspices of UNESCO and several scientific unions. The aims of ICLAS are to promote and coordinate the development of laboratory animal science throughout the world, to promote international collaboration in laboratory animal science, to promote the definition and monitoring of quality laboratory animals, to collect and disseminate information on laboratory animal science, and to promote the humane use of animals in research, testing, and teaching through recognition of ethical principles and scientific responsibilities.
ICLAS has programs addressing microbiologic and genetic monitoring
and standardization, assisting developing countries in pursuing
their objectives in improving the care and use of laboratory animals,
and improving education and training in laboratory animal science.
ICLAS accomplishes its goals through
110 APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
regional scientific meetings, an international scientific meeting held every 4 years, the dissemination of information, and expert consultation with those requesting assistance.
ICLAS membership is composed of national members, scientific union
members, scientific members, and associate members. The Governing
Board is responsible for implementing the general policy of ICLAS
and is elected by the General Assembly every 4 years.
Laboratory Animal Management Association (LAMA), Mr. Paul
Schwikert, Past-President. P.O. Box 1744, Silver Spring, MD 20915
(phone: 313-577-1418; fax: 313-577-5890).
LAMA is a nonprofit educational organization. Membership includes
individuals and institutions involved in laboratory animal management,
medicine, and science. The mission of the association, founded
in 1984, is to "enhance the quality of management and care
of laboratory animals throughout the world." The objectives
of LAMA include promoting the dissemination of ideas, experiences,
and knowledge in the management of laboratory animals, encouraging
continued education, acting as a spokesperson for the field of
laboratory animal management, and assisting in the training of
managers. The organization conducts a midyear forum on management
issues and topics of interest to the general membership and an
annual meeting in conjunction with the American Association of
Laboratory Animals Science national meeting. LAMA Review is
a quarterly journal on management issues published by the organization,
and LAMA Lines is a bimonthly newsletter on topics of general
interest to the membership.
Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals/American
Humane Education Society (MSPCA/AHES), 350 South Huntington
Avenue, Boston, MA 02130 (phone: 617-522-7400; fax: 617-522-4885).
The Center for Laboratory Animal Welfare at MSPCAIAHES was formed in 1992 to bring thoughtful analysis to the complex issues surrounding the use of animals in research, testing, and education. Its work involves researching issues related to the welfare of laboratory animals, creating educational materials, and developing programs on issues of interest to the public.
Founded in 1868, MSPCA/AHES is one of the largest animal-protection
organizations in the world. It operates three animal hospitals,
seven animal shelters, and a statewide law-enforcement program
in Massachusetts. It is widely recognized for national leadership
in humane education, publications, legislative issues, and veterinary
medicine.
APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS 111
National Association for Biomedical Research (NABR), 818
Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 303, Washington, DC 20006 (phone:
202-857-0540; fax 202-659-1902; e-mail: nabr-fbr@access.digex.net;
URL: http://www.fiesta.comlnabr).
NABR is a nonprofit organization of 350 institutional members
from both academia and industry whose mission is to advocate public
policy that recognizes the vital role of laboratory animals in
research, education, and safety testing. NABR is a source of information
concerning existing and proposed animal welfare legislation and
regulations at the national, state, and local level.
Office for Protection from Research Risks (OPRR), National
Institutes of Health, 6100 Executive Blvd., Suite 3B01, Rockville,
MD 20892 (phone: 301-496-7163; fax: 301-402-2803).
The Division of Animal Welfare of OPRR fulfills responsibilities
set forth in the Public Health Service (PHS) Act. These include
developing and monitoring, as well as exercising compliance oversight
relative to, the PHS Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals (Policy), which applies to animals involved in research
conducted or supported by any component of PHS; establishing criteria
for and negotiation of assurances of compliance with institutions
engaged in PHS-conducted or PHS-supported research using animals;
directing the development and implementation of educational and
instructional programs with respect to the use of animals in research;
and evaluating the effectiveness of PHS policies and programs
for the humane care and use of laboratory animals.
Primate Information Center, Regional Primate Research Center
SJ-50, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (phone: 206-543-4376;
fax: 206-865-0305).
The Primate Information Center's goal is to provide bibliographic
access to all scientific literature on nonhuman primates for the
research and educational communities. Coverage spans all publication
categories (articles, books, abstracts, technical reports, dissertations,
book chapters, etc.) and many subjects (behavior, colony management,
ecology, reproduction, field studies, disease models, veterinary
science, pharmacology, physiology, evolution, taxonomy, genetics,
zoo geography, etc.). A comprehensive computerized database is
maintained and used to publish a variety of bibliographic products
to fulfill this mission. The collection of materials on primate
research is fairly comprehensive. However, the center is an indexing
service and not a library, so materials generally do not circulate.
It will make individually negotiated exceptions for items that
researchers are not able to acquire otherwise.
112 APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
Primate Supply Information Clearinghouse (PSIC), Cathy
A. Johnson-Delany, Director, Regional Primate Research Center,
SJ-50 University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (phone: 206-543-5178;
fax: 206-685-0305; e-mail: cathydj @bart.rprc.washington.edu).
The goal of PSIC is to provide communication between research
institutions, zoologic parks, and domestic breeding colonies for
the efficient sharing of nonhuman primates and their tissues,
equipment, and services. PSIC also publishes New Listings and
the Annual Resource Guide.
Purina Mills, Inc., 505 North 4th and D Street,
Richmond, IN 47374.
Purina Mills, Inc. offers a correspondence course, called Laboratory
Animal Care Course, for everyone working with small animals. The
course includes the following six lessons: introduction to laboratory
animals; management of laboratory animals; housing, equipment,
and handling; disease and control; glossary; and housing supplements
and miscellaneous.
Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW), 7833 Walker
Drive, Suite 340, Greenbelt, MD 20770 (phone: 301-345-3500; fax:
301-345-3503).
SCAW is an independent organization supported by individuals and
institutions involved in research with animals and concerned about
maintaining the highest standards of humane care. SCAW publishes
resource materials, organizes conferences, and supports a wide
variety of educational activities.
Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), 8 Hamilton
Close, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts EN6 3QD, United Kingdom
(phone: 44-707-58202; fax: 44-707-49279).
UFAW was founded in 1926 as the University of London Animal Welfare
Society (ULAWS). Its work expanded, and in order to allow a wider
membership, UFAW was formed in 1938 with ULAWS as its first branch.
UFAW publishes the UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management
of Laboratory Animals and other publications.
United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service, Regulatory Enforcement of Animal Care (REAC),
4700 River Road, Unit 84, Riverdale, MD 20737-1234 (phone:
301-734-4981; fax: 301-734-4328; e-mail: sstith@ aphis.usda.gov).
The missions of the Animal Care Program are to provide leadership
in establishing acceptable standards of humane animal care and
treatment and to monitor
APPENDIX B: SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS 113
and achieve compliance through inspections and educational and
cooperative efforts. Copies of the Animal Welfare Regulations
and the Animal Welfare Act are available from REAC.
Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center (WRPRC) Library,
University of Wisconsin, 1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715-1299
(phone: 608-263-3512; fax: 608-263-4031; e-mail: library@primate.wisc.edu;
URL: http:I/ www.primate.wisc.eduIWRPRC).
The library supports research programs of WRPRC and aids in the
dissemination of information about nonhuman primates to the scientific
community. Books, periodicals, newsletters, and other documents
in all languages related to primatology are included. Special
collections include rare books and audiovisual materials.
The Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-544)-as amended by the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-579); 1976 Amendments to the Animal Welfare Act (P.L. 94-279); the Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L 99-198), Subtitle F (Animal Welfare File Name: PL99198); and the Food and Agriculture Conservation and Trade Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-624), Section 2503, Protection of Pets (File Name: PL101624)-contains provisions to prevent the sale or use of animals that have been stolen, to prohibit animal-fighting ventures, and to ensure that animals used in research, for exhibition, or as pets receive humane care and treatment. The law provides for regulating the transport, purchase, sale, housing, care, handling, and treatmentof such animals.
Regulatory authority under the Animal Welfare Act is vested in
the secretary of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
implemented by USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(APHIS). Rules and regulations pertaining to implementation are
published in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals
and Animal Products), Chapter 1, Subchapter A (Animal Welfare).
Available from: Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, APHIS,
USDA, Unit 85, 4700 River Road, Riverdale, MD 20737-1234. File
Name 9CFR93.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205; 87 Statute 884)
became effective on December 28, 1973, supplanting the Endangered
Species Conserva-
APPENDIX C: FEDERAL LAWS RELEVANT TO ANIMAL CARE AND USE 115
tion Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-135; 83 Statute 275). The new law seeks "to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the conservation of such endangered species and threatened species, and to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the purposes of the treaties and conservation of wild flora and fauna worldwide."
Regulatory authority under the Endangered Species Act is vested
in the secretary of the U.S. Department of the Interior (USD1)
and implemented by USD1' 5 Fish and Wildlife Service. Implementing
rules and regulations are published in the Code of Federal Regulations,
Title 50 (Wildlife and Fisheries), Chapter 1 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Department of the Interior), Subchapter B, Part 17 (Endangered
and Threatened Wildlife and Plants). Copies of the regulations,
including a list of species currently considered endangered or
threatened, can be obtained by writing to the Office of Endangered
Species, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, DC 20240.
The Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane Care and Use
of Laboratory Animals was updated in 1996. In the policy statement,
the PHS endorses the U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization
and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and
Training (reprinted below), which were developed by the Interagency
Research Animal Committee. The PHS policy implements and supplements
these principles. Information concerning the policy can be obtained
from the Office for Protection from Research Risks, National Institutes
of Health, 6100 Executive Boulevard, MSC 7507, Rockville, MD 20892-7507.
The principles below were prepared by the Interagency Research
Animal Committee. This committee, which was established in 1983,
serves as a focal point for federal agencies' discussions of issue's
involving all animal species needed for biomedical research and
testing. The committee's principal concerns are the conservation,
use, care, and welfare of research animals. Its responsibilities
include information exchange, program coordination, and contributions
to policy development.
APPENDIX D: PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE POLICY AND GOVERNMENT PRINCIPLES
117
The development of knowledge necessary for the improvement of
the health and well-being of humans as well as other animals requires
in vivo experimentation with a wide variety of animal species.
Whenever U.S. Government agencies develop requirements for testing,
research, or training procedures involving the use of vertebrate
animals, the following principles shall be considered; and whenever
these agencies actually perform or sponsor such procedures, the
responsible Institutional Official shall ensure that these principles
are adhered to:
I. The transportation, care, and use of animals should be in accordance with the Animal Welfare Act (7 U.S.C. 2131 et seq.) and other applicable Federal laws, guidelines, and policies.1
II. Procedures involving animals should be designed and performed with due consideration of their relevance to human or animal health, the advancement of knowledge, or the good of society.
III. The animals selected for a procedure should be of an appropriate species and quality and the minimum number required to obtain valid results. Methods such as mathematical models, computer simulation, and in vitro biological systems should be considered.
IV. Proper use of animals, including the avoidance or minimization of discomfort, distress, and pain when consistent with sound scientific practices, is imperative. Unless the contrary is established, investigators should consider that procedures that cause pain or distress in human beings may cause pain or distress in other animals.
V. Procedures with animals that may cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. Surgical or other painful procedures should not be performed on unanesthetized animals paralyzed by chemical agents.
VI. Animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed at the end of the procedure or, if appropriate, during the procedure.
VII. The living conditions of animals should be appropriate for
their species and contribute to their health and comfort. Normally,
the housing, feeding, and care of all animals used for biomedical
purposes must be directed by a veterinarian or other scientist
trained and experienced in the proper care, handling, and use
of the species being maintained or studied. In any case, veterinary
care shall be provided as indicated.
118 APPENDIX D: PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE POLICY AND GOVERNMENT PRINCIPLES
VIII. Investigators and other personnel shall be appropriately qualified and experienced for conducting procedures on living animals. Adequate arrangements shall be made for their in-service training, including the proper and humane care and use of laboratory animals.
IX. Where exceptions are required in relation to the provisions
of these Principles, the decisions should not rest with the investigators
directly concerned but should be made, with due regard to Principle
II, by an appropriate review group such as an institutional animal
care and use committee. Such exceptions should not be made solely
for the purposes of teaching or demonstration.
A
| Accidents and emergencies, 17, 18, 46, 62 | American Society of Laboratory Animal |
| Acclimation and adaptation. 28-29 | Practitioners (ASLAP), 104 |
| of newly acquired animals, 57, 58 | American Society of Primatologists (ASP). 104 |
| to outdoor housing, 25, 30 | American Veterinary Medical Association |
| Acquisition of animals, 57 | (AVMA), 65, 104-105 |
| Activity and exercise, 37, 38 | Amphibians, recommended readings, 83 |
| Agricultural research, 4-5 | Analgesia and analgesics. 12, 64-65 |
| Airborne contaminants, 17.22-23, 24, 33, 62-63 | recommended readings. 83-84 |
| Airflow, see Ventilation and airflow | Anesthesia and anesthetics, 12.63.64-65 |
| Air pressure. 17, 31.76.79 | recommended readings, 83-85 |
| Albinism. 35 | recovery from. 63-64, 79 |
| Alternatives to animal research, 1, 10, 117 | waste gases. 17 |
| recommended readings. 82-83 | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service |
| American Association for Accreditation of | (APHIS), 112-113, 114 |
| Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC), | Animal care and use protocols, 8-11 |
| 102-103 | Animal training, 11.25 |
| American Association for Laboratory Animal | Animal Welfare Act. 113.114 |
| Science (AALAS), 13.103 | Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC), |
| American College of Laboratory Animal | 13, 37, 105 |
| Medicine (ACLAM). 103 | Animal Welfare Institute (AWI). 105 |
| American Humane Association (AHA). 103-104 | Animal Welfare Regulations (AWRs), 2, 4.8 |
| American Humane Education Society (AHES). | 9, 10, 11, 114, 117 |
| 110 | housing guidelines. 25.26 |
| American Society of Heating. Refrigeration, | on personnel qualifications. 13, 61 |
| and Air-Conditioning Engineers | on transport. 57 |
| (ASHRAE). 32 | on veterinary care, 13 |
| Antibiotics. 61 | |
| Anxiolytics, 65 |
120 INDEX
| Apes, see Nonhuman primates | Cats, 38, 46 |
| Association of Primate Veterinarians (APV), | housing requirements, 25, 28, 32 |
| 105-106 | procurement, 57 |
| Australia and New Zealand Council for the | recommended readings, 87 |
| Care of Animals in Research and | Cattle, space requirements, 26, 31, 38 |
| Teaching (ANZCCART), 106 | Cedar shavings, 41 |
| Autoclaving | Ceilings, 75 |
| of foods and bedding, 39, 41 | Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing |
| for surgery, 62, 79 | (CAAT), 107-108 |
| B | Center for Laboratory Animal Welfare |
| (CLAW), 110 | |
| Barrier entry systems, 16 | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
| Bedding 24, 32 41 | (CDC), 16, 18 |
| changing of, 24, 29, 34, 42, 44 | Cercopithecine herpesvirus, 18, 59 |
| disposal, 15, 16 | Chairing, 11 |
| Behavior and behavior changes, 2, 11, 12, 22, | Chemical cleaning agents, 14, 43, 62 |
| 23, 25, 36-38 | Chickens, 28, 32 |
| Biologic agents and hazards, 14, 16, 18, 44 | Circadian cycles, 34, 35 |
| recommended readings, 85-86 | Cleaning and sanitation, 15, 24, 34, 42-44, 72, |
| waste disposal, 44, 45 | 77-78 |
| Biologic-safety cabinets, 17, 76 | Clinical records, 46-47 |
| Birds, recommended readings, 87 | Clothing, 15, 17 |
| Bites and scratches, 14, 18 | Cold storage and refrigeration, 39, 45, 77 |
| Bordetella bronchiseptica, 59 | Committees, see Institutional animal care and |
| Breeding and reproduction, 47, 57 | use committees (IACUCs) |
| environmental conditions for, 22, 25, | Computer modeling |
| 35 | as an alternative to animal use, 10, 117 |
| records, 46, 47 | in facility design, 31, 71 |
| Conditioned-response protocols, 12 | |
| Construction materials, 23, 72 | |
| Contaminants | |
| Cages and caging, 23, 38 | airborne, 17, 22-23, 24, 33, 62-63 |
| cleaning and sanitation, 24, 43, 44 | infood,38,39 |
| complexities in, 25, 36 | recommended readings, 88-89 |
| dimensions and space allocation, 25-28 | in water, 40, 41 |
| flooring, 24,43 | Corridors, 16, 73, 77 |
| see also Primary enclosures | Cryopreservation, 47-48 |
| Calorie restriction, 40 | |
| Canadian Association for Laboratory Animal | |
| Medicine/L'Association canadienne | |
| dela medecine des animaux de | Defecation, 23, 43 |
| laboratoire (CALAM/ACMAL), 106- | Dehydration, 12 |
| 107 | Diagnosis, 59-60 |
| Canadian Association for Laboratory Animal | Diet and dietary control, 12, 39, 40 |
| Science/L'Association canadienne pour | Disaster planning, 46 |
| la technologie des animeaux laboratoire | Disease control, 57-58, 60 |
| (CALAMIACTAL), 106- | Disease 23, 24, susceptibility, 22-23, 37 |
| 07 | Disinfection, 42-44 |
| Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC), 13, | Disposable clothing, 15 |
| 107 | Distress |
| Carcass disposal, 45, 73, 77 | and euthanasia, 10, 65, 66 |
| procedures causing, 10-11, 65, 117 |
INDEX 121
| Diurnal cycles, 35 | for hazardous-agent experimentation, 16-17, |
| Dogs, 11,37,38,46 | 72, 76 |
| housing requirements, 24, 25-26, 28, 29n, | recommended readings, 87-88 |
| 32, 38 | safety design and support, 15-16 |
| procurement, 57 | for surgery, 62-63, 78-79 |
| recommended readings, 87 | see also Cages and caging; Housing; |
| Doors, 73 | Outdoor housing; Primary enclosures; |
| Double-corridor facilities, 16 | Secondary enclosures; Space |
| Drafts, 31 | requirements |
| Dralnage, 17,24, 74 | Farm animals, 4-5 46 |
| Drugs, 11 | housing requirements, 4, 28, 30-31, 32, 38 |
| recommended readings, 96-97 | recommended readings, 4-5, 90-91 |
| Dry-bulb temperature, 29, 31 | surgery on, 63, 79 |
| Field studies, 5 | |
| Fighting, 37
Filter-top cages, 24, 29, 33, 58 | |
| Fish and Wildlife Service, 57, 115 | |
| Education and training of personnel, 13-14, 15, | Fishes, recommended readings, 83 |
| 16, 117 | Flooring, 24, 74 |
| in noise reduction, 36 | in cages, 24, 43 |
| recommended readings, 100-101 | Food and feeding, 23, 25, 38-40 |
| in safety procedures, 15, 16 | autoclavings, 39, 41 |
| in surgical procedures, 61 | bowls and devices, 26, 39-40, 43 |
| Electric power systems, 76 | recommended reading, 94-95 |
| Emergency procedures 17, 18, 46, 62 | restrictions, 12, 40 |
| Enclosures, see Cages and caging; Primary | storage, 39, 40, 41, 77 |
| enclosures; Secondary enclosures | Foundation for Biomedical Research (FBR), |
| Endangered Species Act, 114-115 | 108 |
| Entrapment, 23 | Furnishings, 23, 24, 26, 36-37 |
| Environmental conditions, 22-36 | recommended readings, 88 |
| natural versus controlled, 4, 22, 25 | |
| see also Facilities; Housing | |
| Environmental enrichment, 21, 25, 27, 36-38 | |
| recommended readings, 88 | |
| Ergonomics, 15 | Gas concentrations, 22, 33, 34 |
| Escape, 23, 24 | Genetics, 47-48 |
| Ether, 17 | recommended readings, 91-92 |
| Ethics, recommended readings, 89 | Gerbils, 32 |
| Euthanasia, 10, 65-66 | Goats, 26, 30, 58 |
| recommended readings, 89 | Groups, see Social groups and social |
| and surgical procedures, 62, 117 | interaction |
| Exercise and activity, 37, 38 | Guinea pigs, 27, 43, 58, 59 |
| Exotic and wild species, 5, 30 | |
| endangered, 57, 114-115 | |
| recommended readings, 89-90 | |
| Hamsters, 27, 32, 43 | |
| Hazardous agents, 14, 16-17 | |
| recommended readings, 85-86, 88-89 | |
| Facilities, 71-79 | waste disposal, 44, 45 |
| for cleaning and sanitation, 15, 72, 77-78 | Hearing protection, 17 |
122 INDEX
| Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) | International Council for Laboratory Animal |
| systems, 33, 34, 75-76 | Science (ICLAS), 109-110 |
| Heat loads, 30, 31. 32, 33 | Isolation, see Quarantine; Separation and |
| Height, of enclosures, 25, 26-27 | isolation |
| HEPA filters (high-efficiency particulate air filters). | |
| 33-34, 76 | |
| Herpesvirus simine, 18, 59 | |
| Herpesvirus tamarinus, 59 | Laboratory Animal Management Association |
| Holidays, care during, 46 | (LAMA), 110 |
| Horses, space requirements, 31 38 | medical evaluation, 17-18 |
| Housing, 23, 117 | qualifications and training, 13-14, 117 |
| factors in planning, 21-22 | recommended readings, 100-101 |
| safety design, 15-16 | see also Occupational health and safety |
| see also Cages and caging; Outdoor housing; | Laundering services, 15 |
| Primary enclosures; Secondary enclosures; Space | Light, 34-35, 76 |
| requirements; and specific animals | |
| Humane Society of the United States (HSUS), | Litter boxes, 26 |
| Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, 60 | |
| Human interaction, 38 | |
| Humidity and moisture. 22, 23, 24, 29. 30, 34, 75 | |
| Husbandry and management practices. 2. 38-46 | Macaques, 18, 59 |
| for outdoor housing, 24-25 | Macroenvironment, 22 |
| recommended readings. 92-93 | Major survival surgery, 11-12, 61 |
| see also Bedding; Cleaning and sanitation; Food | Massachusetts Society for Prevention of |
| and feeding; Records and recordkeeping.' | Cruelty to Animals (MSPCA), 110 |
| Repair and maintenance | |
| Medical examinations (personnel), 17-18 | |
| Metabolic processes, 22-23 | |
| Mice, 35, 58 | |
| Identification of animals, 46, 57 Illuminating | diseases, 59,60 |
| Engineering Society of North | housing requirements, 27, 32 |
| America (IESNA), 35 | Microenvironment, 22-23, 31 |
| Illumination, 34-35, 76 | Modeling, see Computer modeling |
| Immunizanon. 18 | Moisture, see Humidity and moisture |
| Immunocompromised animals, 15, 44 | Monkeys, see Nonhuman primates |
| Inbreeding, 47, 48 | Mouse hepatitis virus, 59, 60 |
| Incineration, 45 | Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, 59 |
| Infectious-disease studies, 18 | |
| Inspections. 9 | |
| Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources | National Association for Biomedical Research |
| (NABR), 111 | |
| (ILAR). 2.13, 109 | National Institutes of Health (NIH), 16, 18, 111 |
| Institutional animal care and use committees | National Research Council (NRC). 14, 16, 18 |
| (IACUCs), 2. 3,4, 5, 8.9-10.11, 22 | Natural environments, 4.22, 25 |
| and housing design, 24.26, 27 | Neuromuscular blocking agents. 65 |
| recommended readings, 82 | Nocturnal animals, 35 |
| and surgical procedures. 12, 61 Interagency | Noise, 17,36,73, 77 |
| Research Animal Committee, 116 International Air | Nomenclature, 48 |
| Transport Association (IATA) | |
| Live Animal Regulations, 57 | recommended readings. 91-92 |
INDEX 123
| Nonhuman primates, 17, 36, 40 | Pigeons, 28 |
| clinical records, 46, 47 | Pigmentation, 35 |
| diseases of, 18, 58, 59 | Pilot studies, 10 |
| housing requirements. 24-29 passim, 32, 37 | Policies, 2-3 |
| imports, 57 | recommended readings, 93 |
| recommended readings, 93-94 | see also Animal care and use protocols |
| restraint, 11 | Ponies, 31 |
| Nontraditional species, see Exotic and wild | Postures and postural adjustments, 2, 11, 23 |
| 25, 27 | |
| species | Poultry, 32 |
| Nutrition, see Food and feeding | Power systems, 76 |
| Primary enclosures, 22, 23-24 | |
| cleaning and sanitation, 42-44 | |
| dimensions and space allocation, 25-28 | |
| Occupational health and safety. 5, 10, 14-18 | flooring, 24 |
| recommended readings, 85-86 | temperature and humidity, 29 |
| Odors, 32. 33, 34, 42, 44 | ventilation and airflow, 22, 24, 31-33 |
| Office for Protection from Research Risks, 111 | see also Cages and caging |
| Outbreeding. 47. 48 | Primate Information Center, 111 |
| Outdoor housing, 24-25 | Primates, see Nonhuman primates |
| acclimation, 25, 30 | Primate Supply Information Clearinghouse |
| pest control, 45 | (PSIC), 112 |
| water sources. 41 | Procurement of animals, 57 |
| Professional societies, 13, 102-112 passim | |
| Protective clothing, 15, 17 | |
| Protocols, 8-11 | |
| Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane | |
| Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 2 | |
| Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane | |
| Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 2. | |
| Pain, 64.117 | 8.9.10.111.116 |
| control, 2, 10, 12, 64-65, 117 | housing guidelines,26 |
| and euthanasia, 10, 65, 66 | on personnel qualifications, 13, 61 |
| procedures causing, 10-11, 65.117 | on safety, 14 |
| recommended readings, 83-85 | on veterinary care, 13 |
| Paralysis. 65, 117 | Purina Mills, Inc., 112 |
| Parasites, readings, 95 | |
| Particulate concentrations, 22, 33, 34 | |
| Pasteurella multocida, 59 | |
| Pastures, 4, 24, 25, 38 | |
| Pathology, readings, 95 | |
| Pedigrees. 47 | Quail, 28 |
| Pens, 23, 24,42-43 | Quarantines, 57.58 |
| Perches, 23, 24, 25, 36 | see also Separation and isolation |
| Perishable foods, 39 | |
| Pest control, 45-46 | |
| Pets, 57 | |
| Pharmacology. recommended readings, 96-97 | |
| Photoperiod. 34,35, 74 | Rabbits, 28.32, 40.43 |
| Photostressors, 34 | diseases. 59 |
| Phototoxic retinopathy. 35 | recommended readings, 97-98 |
| Physical activity, 37, 38 | Radiation, 14, 15, 45 |
| Physical hazards, 14.15, 16 | Rats, 27, 32, 58 |
| Physical restraint, 11 | albinism and photoxicity, 35 |
| Physiologic function, 11-12, 22-23 | diseases. 59.60 |
124 INDEX
| Records and recordkeeping | Social groups and social interaction, 21-27, 37- |
| clinical, 46-47 | 38, 40 |
| genetic management, 47-48 | Solid-bottom flooring, 24, 43 |
| identification, 46 | Space requirements, 25-28, 30, 31, 32, 38 |
| Recycled airflow, 33-34, 76 | Stabilization, 57, 58 |
| Regulations, 2-3, 8, 10, 57 | Sterilization |
| recommended readings, 93 | of cages and equipment, 24, 44 |
| Regulatory Enforcement of Animal Care | of food, 39 |
| (REAC), 112-113 | of hazardous wastes, 45 |
| Removals from experiments, 10, 11, 12 | for surgery, 62 |
| Repair and maintenance, 23, 34 | Storage facilities and containers, 72, 77 |
| Reproduction, see Breeding and reproduction | for food and bedding, 39.40. 41, 77 |
| Reptiles, recommended readings, 83 | for waste, 45, 72, 77 |
| Respiratory protection, 17 | Subclinical infections, 59, 60 |
| Resting areas, 23, 25, 26, 36 | Surgical procedures, 11-12, 60-64, 117 |
| Restraint, 11 | autoclaving, 62, 79 |
| Risk assessment, 14 | facilities, 62-63, 78-79 |
| Rodents, 36, 40, 43, 58 | oversight, 56 |
| albinism and photoxicity, 35 | postsurgical care, 63-64, 79 |
| diseases of, 59, 60 | recommended readings, 83-85 |
| housing requirements, 24, 25, 26, 27, 32 | Surveillance, 16, 18, 58, 59-60 |
| inbreeding, 47 | Swine |
| pathogen-free, 60 | diseases, 59 |
| recommended readings, 97-98 | space requirements, 26, 30 |
| surgery on, 63, 78 | |
| toe-clipping, 46 | |
| Runs, 23, 24, 42-43 | |
| Temperature, 22, 24, 28-34, 74 75 | |
| Tetanus, 18 | |
| Tethering, 11 | |
| Safety, see Occupational health and safety | "3 R's" (replacement, reduction, and |
| Sanitation, see Cleaning and sanitation | refinement), 108, 109 |
| Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW), | Timed lighting systems, 35, 76 |
| 112 | Toe-clipping, 46 |
| Secondary enclosures, 22.29, 44 | Training, see Animal training; Education and |
| doors and windows, 73-74 | training of personnel |
| ventilation and airflow, 22, 31-33 | Transgenic animals, 47-48 |
| see also Cages and caging | Transport of animals, 57 |
| Security, 46, 73 | Traps, 46 |
| Sedation and sedatives, 12, 65 | Treatment and therapeutic procedures, 60 |
| Separation and isolation, 46, 58-59, 60, 72 | Tuberculosis, 18, 57 |
| Serial publications, 99-100 | Tunnels, 36 |
| Sheep, 26, 30, 38 | |
| Shelf-life, of food, 39 | |
| Sheltered housing, 24 | |
| Shelves, 24, 36 | Universities Federation for Animal Welfare |
| Showers, 15, 17, 73 | (UFAW), 112 |
| Sialodacryoadenitis virus, 59 | Urine, 23, 43 |
| Simian hemorrhagic fever, 59 | U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 57, |
| Simian immunodeficiency virus, 59 | 112-113, 114 |
INDEX 125
| U.S. Department of the Interior, 115 | |
| U.S. Government Principles for Utilization and | |
| Core of Vertebrate Animals Used in | Walls, 74-75 |
| Testing, Research, and Training, 2, 5, | Washing facilities, 15 |
| 10, 116-117 | Waste materials, 15-16, 42-43, 44-45 |
| biologic hazards, 44, 45 | |
| and outside shelters, 24 | |
| storage, 45, 72, 77 | |
| Vaccination, of laboratory personnel, 18 | Water supply, 40-41 |
| Vegetables, 39, 40 | devices, 26, 40-41, 43-44 |
| Vendors of animals, 57 | restriction, 12 |
| Ventilation and airflow, 17, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30- | Weekend care, 46 |
| 34, 76-77, 78 | Wild animals, see Exotic and wild species |
| Veterinarians | Windows, 73-74 |
| part-time and consulting, 12 | Wire flooring, 24, 43 |
| responsibilities of, 8, 9, 12-13, 46, 56, 63, 117 | Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center |
| Veterinary care, 11, 12-13, 56-66, 117 | (WRPRC) Library, 113 |
| Veterinary technicians | Wood materials, 23, 41 |
| education and training, 13 | |
| recommended readings, 100-101 | |
| Vinyl flooring, 24 | |
| Vitamin C, 39 | Zoo animals, recommended readings, 89-90 |
| Zoonoses, 5, 14, 15, 18, 58 | |
| recommended readings, 85-86 |
The following publications are available from the National Academy
Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Lockbox 285, Washington,
DC 20055 (phone toll-free 1-800-624-6242 or call 202-334-3313
in the Washington metropolitan area). You may also order electronically
via Internet at http://www.nap.edu. Additional related publications,
including the quarterly ILAR Journal and Principles
and Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Precollege Education,
are available directly from the Institute of Laboratory Animal
Resources (phone: 202-334-2590; fax: 202-334-1687; email: ILAR@nas.edu;
URL: http://Iwww2.nas. edulilarhomel).
Occupational Health and Safety in the Care and Use of Research Animals. Forthcoming
Psychological Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates. Forthcoming
Rodents: Laboratory Animal Management Series. Forthcoming
Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals, Fourth Revised Edition. 1995
Dogs: Laboratory Animal Management Series. 1994
Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, Ninth Revised Edition. 1994
Nutrient Requirements of Fish. 1993
Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. 1992
Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. 1991
Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. 1991
Companion Guide to Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. 1991
Immunodeficient Rodents: A Guide to Their Immunobiology, Husbandry, and Use. 1989
Nutrient Requirements of Swine, Ninth Revised Edition. 1988
Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1988
Vitamin Tolerances of Animals. 1987
Nutrient Requirements of Cats, Revised Edition. 1986
Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. 1985
Nutrient Requirements of Sheep, Sixth Revised Edition. 1985
Nutrient Requirements of Goats. 1981
Mineral Tolerances of Domestic Animals. 1980
Nutrient Requirements of Nonhuman Primates. 1978
Nutrient Requirements of Rabbits. 1977
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